Growing Green Cities - A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada

Page 1 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada Bardekjian, A. & Puric-Mladenovic, D. (2025). Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada. Tree Canada. Retrieved from Tree Canada: https:// treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide Context1.0 Definition of Urban Forests (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/definition-of- urban-forests/) 1.1 History of Urban Forests in Canada (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ history-of-urban-forests-in-canada/) 1.2 Ecological Services2.0 Benefits of Urban Forests (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/benefits-of- urban-forests/) 2.1 Trees and Urban Heat Island (UHI) (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/trees- and-urban-heat-island-uhi/) 2.2 Air Quality and Climate Change (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/air- quality-and-climate-change/) 2.3 Stormwater Management (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/stormwater- management/) 2.4 Inventory and Monitoring3.0 Economic Value and Appraisal of Trees (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ economic-value-and-appraisal-of-trees/) 3.1 Individual Tree and Woodlot Inventory, and the Tree Inspection Cycle (https:// treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/individual-tree-and-woodlot-inventory-and-the-tree- inspection-cycle/) 3.2 GIS, Remote Sensing and Other Technologies (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry- guide/gis-remote-sensing-and-other-technologies/) 3.3 Datasets (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/datasets/)3.4 Management4.0 Urban Forest Management Planning (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ urban-forest-management-planning/) 4.1 Tree Maintenance (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/tree-maintenance/)4.2 Hydro Lines and Corridors (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/hydro-lines-and- corridors/) 4.3 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 1 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 2 Definition of Urban Forests Tree Selection and Planting (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/tree-selection- and-planting/) 4.4 Hard Surface Planting (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/hard-surface- planting/) 4.5 Urban Woodlot and Park Management (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ urban-woodlot-and-park-management/) 4.6 Emergency Preparedness (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/emergency- preparedness/) 4.7 Legislation and Protections5.0 Enabling Legislation, Municipal By-laws and Regulations (https://treecanada.ca/ urban-forestry-guide/enabling-legislation-municipal-by-laws-and-regulations/) 5.1 Tree Protection During Construction and Conflict with Building Foundations (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/tree-protection-during-construction-and- conflict-with-building-foundations/) 5.2 Urban Forest Stresses6.0 Abiotic Stresses (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/abiotic-stresses/)6.1 Insects and Diseases (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/insects-and- diseases/) 6.2 Invasive Plant Species (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/invasive-plant- species/) 6.3 Fire and the Urban-Rural Interface (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/fire- and-the-urban-rural-interface/) 6.4 Social Considerations7.0 Equity Considerations in Urban Forestry  (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ equity-considerations-in-urban-forestry/) 7.1 Awareness and Community Stewardship (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ awareness-and-community-stewardship/) 7.2 Indigenous Collaboration and Integration of ITK (https://treecanada.ca/urban- forestry-guide/indigenous-collaboration-and-integration-of-itk/) 7.3 Education and Professional Development (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry- guide/education-and-professional-development/) 7.4 Additional Resources8.0 Additional Resources (https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/additional-resources/)8.1 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 2 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 3 What comes to mind when thinking of an urban forest? Street trees? Trees in containers on sidewalks? Forests in ravines? Backyard trees on lot lines? In fact, urban forests encompass all those things and more.  Since the mid-20th century, urban areas in Canada have experienced signi�cant growth and increased population density, which has brought many environmental, ecological, and social problems to the surface. These have underscored the importance of developing greener cities and heightened the need for the conservation and management of urban trees. Over time, urban greening attention has moved from a tree-by-tree management approach to one that recognizes the importance of all trees in urban areas (Konijnendijk et al., 2004).  Terms like "urban forest," "urban forestry," and "urban tree canopy" have emerged, and their de�nitions have developed over time. While these three terms are related and often used interchangeably, it is important to recognize the differences between them. Key Terms in Urban Forestry There are several detailed de�nitions of urban forest and forestry that have been used in Canada. In general, the urban forest is de�ned as a collection of all trees, woody plants, and vegetation within urban areas (Jorgensen, 1974). Broadly speaking, urban forestry is a specialized yet multidisciplinary branch of forestry Highlights Key definitions Explanation of urban forests, urban forestry, and urban canopy. Evolution of definitions How the understanding of urban forests, forestry, and urban areas has changed over time. Urban forestry as a practice Management, planning, planting, maintenance, and protection of urban forests. Urban forestry resources in Canada Available resources. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 3 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 4 focusing on forest and tree management techniques and practices that range from planning, planting, maintaining, and protecting trees to public engagement and education (Deneke, 1993). Urban tree canopy is a two-dimensional expression of an urban forest and a measure of the extent of tree canopies that shade the ground (CSLA, 2024; Vogt, 2020). Easily mappable using modern spatial technologies, the urban tree canopy is often used as a simple and general measure of urban forests, enabling urban forest quanti�cation, comparison, and monitoring over space and time (Tree Canada, 2019). The approach to thinking of trees in urban areas as a forest was prompted by the loss of American elms (Ulmus americana) due to the impacts of Dutch Elm Disease (DED) in North American cities in the 1960s. DED, a vascular wilt fungus, killed most American elms in urban areas and devastated the tree canopy cover in many Eastern American and Canadian communities. The sudden loss of tree canopy left streets and neighbourhoods without su�cient canopy cover and shade, leading to a signi�cant public outcry for conserving and managing urban trees. The movement mobilized forestry professionals and scientists to recognize and value urban forests as critical natural resources in urban areas. Society had started to recognize that urban forests were critical for providing diverse environmental and social bene�ts and making urban areas livable.  Subsequently, the importance of all trees growing in urban areas was recognized, and the terms "urban forest" and “urban forestry” were coined. The terms were de�ned in 1965 by Dr. Eric Jorgensen at the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Canada. Dr. Jorgensen �rst de�ned the term "urban forestry" as “a specialized branch of forestry and [it] has in its objectives the cultivation and management of trees for their present and potential contribution to the physiological, sociological, and economic well-being of urban society. These contributions include the overall ameliorating effect of trees on their environment, as well as their recreational and general amenity value." (Jorgensen, 1974). He also believed that urban forestry extends beyond "the city trees or single street management, but rather the tree management in the entire area in�uenced by the urban population." (Jorgensen, 1974). Definitions Over Time Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 4 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 5 Dr. Jorgensen’s original de�nition of urban forestry was enhanced and developed over time. In 1993 at the �rst Canadian Urban Forest Conference, Frederick Deneke expanded on the term, stating: "Urban forestry is the sustained planning, planting, protection, maintenance, and care of trees, forests, greenspace, and related resources in and around cities and communities for economic, environmental, social, and public health bene�ts for people. The de�nition includes retaining trees and forest cover as urban populations expand into surrounding rural areas and restoring critical parts of the urban environment after construction. Expansion at the urban/ rural interface raises environmental and public health safety concerns, as well as opportunities to create educational and environmental links between urban people and nature. In addition, urban and community forestry includes the development of citizen involvement and support for investments in long-term ongoing tree planting, protection, and care programs."  Over the years, with growing knowledge and a better understanding of the signi�cance and value of the urban forest, more foresters and professionals began working in the �eld of urban forestry, and urban forest de�nitions started to surface in professional documents and acts in Canada. For example, the Ontario Government's Professional Foresters Act of 2000 de�nes urban forests as "tree- dominated vegetation and related features found within an urban area, and includes woodlots, plantations, shade trees, �elds in various stages of succession, wetland and riparian areas." In 2021, the Act's urban forest de�nition was enhanced, and the term "urban woodland" was added to include urban natural areas such as "woodlands found in an urban environment, including those in riparian areas, ravines and wetlands" (Professional Foresters Act, 2000). Along with the de�nition of urban forests and urban forestry, the importance of strategic and planned urban forests and their management became apparent. Kenney (2003) pioneered the idea of strategic urban forest management planning and emphasized the importance of strategically managing all urban forest components and associated biotic and abiotic elements across a wide range of urban areas, from large to small communities, and in the areas between them. As such, strategic management of urban forests across a range of urban spaces, such as streets, parks, cemeteries, arboretums, private properties, and natural forest fragments, was implemented. All urban forest elements were recognized as the Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 5 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 6 backbone of green infrastructure, and the contribution of urban forest to connecting urban and rural green areas and its contribution to improving the urban environment (GIOC 2015; NRCan and Canadian Forest Service, 2022). Building on Kenney’s (2003) idea of the importance of strategic urban forest management and recognizing the ecological and social importance of urban trees within and outside the boundary of urban areas, the 2019-2024 Canadian Urban Forest Strategy (CUFS) de�nes urban forests more comprehensively as the "trees, forests, greenspace and related abiotic, biotic and cultural components in areas extending from the urban core to the urban-rural fringe" (Tree Canada, 2019). Additionally, the CUFS de�nition of urban forestry also includes "the sustained planning, planting, protection, maintenance, management and care of trees, forests, greenspace along with related resources in and around cities as well as communities for economic, environmental, social, and public health bene�ts for people." It also recognized "techniques associated with retaining trees in the context of densi�cation, forest cover in the context of urban expansion into surrounding rural areas, and greening critical parts of the urban environment after development and urbanization." The CUFS acknowledges that "As the geographic and social distinctions between urban and rural become less clear, urbanization raises environmental and public health and safety concerns, thereby creating a need for educational and environmental links between urban people and nature. Urban forestry is multidisciplinary and multifaceted, comprised of many actors in research, policy, practice, and community engagement. Urban forestry includes the development of citizen involvement and support for investments in long-term on- going tree planting, protection, and care programs." Defining Urban Areas While de�nitions of urban forests use the term “urban” to describe the bounds of the urban forest, this raises the question of how to de�ne the term "urban." In Canada, the de�nition of urban areas has evolved over the years. In the 1931 Canadian Census, an urban population is de�ned as a "population residing inside boundaries of incorporated cities, towns, and villages, regardless of size." After 1951, however, urban areas in Canada began to be de�ned by their population size and, later, by population density. The 1971 Canadian Census, based on population count and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 6 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 7 density at the time, stated, "An urban area has a minimum population concentration of 1,000 persons and a population density of at least 400 persons per square kilometre." In 2008, Statistics Canada recognized that there are two classes of populated areas in Canada: urban areas and rural areas, and they further de�ne urban population speci�cally as "all population living in the urban cores, secondary urban cores and urban fringes of census metropolitan areas" (Statistics Canada, 2008).  Consequently, as the de�nitions of urban areas and urban population have evolved spatially and structurally, the de�nition of urban forest also advanced to include trees and associated vegetation found in areas deemed metropolises, cities, towns or villages, and areas impacted by the urban population. It has also been recognized that urban forests and urbanization are interdependent and that urban forests extend beyond the city limits and are not constrained to municipal borders (Tree Canada, 2019). Urban areas and their populations bene�t from the forests and woodlands outside urban boundaries. These forests and trees, between urban and rural areas, within the zone of urban in�uence often termed peri-urban forests (FAO, n.d.; Salbitano et al., 2016), provide recreational opportunities for urban dwellers, support biodiversity conservation, and, although outside urban areas, contribute to regulating urban climate and hydrology, improve air and water quality, and provide aesthetic and cultural value. However, the pressures from urbanization, development, and the urban population negatively impact forests and the natural environment in peri-urban areas, often resulting in fragmented forest patches and forests that are permanently lost or altered due to development (Puric-Mladenovic, Kenney & Csillag, 2000). Understanding and recognizing the interdependence of urban and peri-urban areas, as well as the similarities and connections between peri-urban and urban forests, is critical for strategic urban forest management and planning (Kenney & Rosen, 2003; Konijnendijk et al., 2004; Salbitano et al., 2016). Resources  Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA). (2024). De�ning the Urban Canopy. https://www.csla-aapc.ca/mission-areas/de�ning-urban-canopy Green Infrastructure Ontario Coalition (GIOC). (2015). Ontario's urban forests: Call to action. Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 7 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 8 https://greeninfrastructureontario.org/app/uploads/2016/06/ GIO_Urban_Forest_Call_to_Action_Sept15Print.pdf Kenney, W. A., & Rosen, M. R. (2003). Urban Forestry Trends in Canada. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/4/XII/0752-B1.htm Natural Resources Canada. (2024). What's an Urban Forest? Natural Resources Canada. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/simply-science/whats-urban-forest/25985    National Capital Commission. (n.d.). Tree canopy assessment for the National Capital Region: A climate change perspective [PDF]. Retrieved January 12, 2025, from https://ncc-website-2.s3.amazonaws.com/documents/FINAL_Tree_Canopy_Assessment_EN.pdf Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service. (2022). Think tank on a pan-Canadian strategy on urban forests: Synopsis of discussion. https://www.csla-aapc.ca/sites/csla-aapc.ca/�les/CFS-Urban_Forest_summary_EN%20_small.pdf Professional Foresters Act, 2000, S.O. 2000, c. 18. https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/00p18  Statistics Canada. (2008). Urban area (UA). https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/ref/dict/geo049-eng.cfm Tree Canada. (2019) Canadian Urban Forest Strategy: 2019-2024, 15 pp. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/TC-CUFS-2019-2024-Eng-1.pdf Cities4Forests. (2023). Learning Guide: Urban Forests for Healthier Cities, 48 pp. Retrieved from https://cities4forests.com/resource/urban-forests-for-healthier-cities-policy-planning-regulations-and- institutional-arrangements/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (n.d.). Urban and peri-urban forestry. https://www.fao.org/forestry-fao/urbanforestry/87025/en/ Salbitano, F., Borelli, S., Conigliaro, M., & Chen, Y. (2016). Guidelines on Urban and Peri-urban Forestry. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9c27d98b-8071-4ee7-8fc4-e0b430f8a8dc/ content#:~:text=Urban%20forests%20can%20be%20de�ned,and%20trees%20in%20derelict%20corners Allegretto, G., Kendal, D., & Flies, E. J. (2022). A Systematic Review of the Relationship Between Urban Forest Quality and Socioeconomic Status or Race. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 74, 127664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127664  Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 8 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 9 Andresen, J. W. (1977). Urban Forestry Legislation in Ontario. The Forestry Chronicle, 53(5), 291–293. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc53291-5  Artibise, A. F. J. (1988). Canada as an Urban Nation. Daedalus, 117(4), 237–264. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20025203  Barker, E., & Kenney, W. (2012). Urban Forest Management in Small Ontario Municipalities. The Forestry Chronicle, 88(02), 118-123. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc2012-027  Dean, J. (2005). "Said tree is a veritable nuisance": Ottawa's Street Trees 1869-1939. Urban History Review, 34(1), 46-57. https://doi.org/10.7202/1016046ar  Deneke, F. (1993). Urban forestry in North America: Towards a global ecosystem perspective. In G. Blouin & R. Comeau (Eds.), Proceedings of the First Canadian Urban Forests Conference May 30–June 2, 1993 (pp. 4-8). Winnipeg, MB. Gerhold, H.D. (2007). Origins of Urban Forestry. In: Kuser, J.E. (eds) Urban and Community Forestry in the Northeast. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4289-8_1  Hauer, R. (2005). Urban Forestry and Urban Forest Capacity: De�ning Capacity and Models of Capacity Building (thesis). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/35641908_Urban_forestry_and_urban_forest_capacity_de�ning_capacity_and_models_of_c apacity_building  Jorgensen, E. (1974). Towards an Urban Forestry Concept. Proceedings of the 10 Commonwealth Forestry Conference. Ottawa: Forestry Service. Kenney, W. A. (2003). A Strategy for Canada's Urban Forests. The Forestry Chronicle, 79(4), 785-789. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc79785-4  Konijnendijk, C., & Randrup, T. (2004). Urban Forestry. In Burley J., Evans J., Youngquist J.A (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences (pp.471-478) Oxford: Elsevier. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280562809_Urban_Forestry  Konijnendijk, C., Sadio, S., Randrup, T., & Schipperijn, J. (2004). Urban and peri-urban forestry in a development context—strategy and implementation. Journal of Arboriculture, 30(5), 269–275. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2004.032  McGahan, P . (1986). Introduction (pp. 9). In Urban Sociology in Canada, 403 pp. Toronto: Butterworth & Co. Puric-Mladenovic, D., Kenney, W. A. and Csillag, F. (2000). Land development pressure on peri-urban forests: A case study in the Regional Municipality of York. The Forestry Chronicle, 76(2): 247-250. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc76247-2  Vogt, J. (2020). Urban Forests as Social-Ecological Systems. In M. I. Goldstein & D. A. DellaSala (Eds.), th Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 9 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 10 Encyclopedia of the World's Biomes (pp. 58-70). Oxford: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12405-4.  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 10 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 11 History of Urban Forests in Canada The history of urban forests and forestry in Canada and the relationships between people and urban trees are deeply rooted in the natural environment and diverse cultural values of Canadians. Land and forest stewardship that is based on a deep respect for the natural world and harmony with nature has been practiced by Indigenous peoples who have been stewarding the land and waters for millennia (Artelle et al., 2019). Canadian cities and towns have been established on the traditional ancestral territories of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis people, whose rights assert their authority to exercise their own jurisprudence and decision-making on these lands (Reo et al., 2017; Artelle et al., 2019; Dietz et al., 2021; Moola et al., 2024).  However, these rights were not recognized by English and French colonizers, who brought their European land use values and drastically changed the land and forest. They stripped Indigenous people of their land, resources, rights, knowledge, governance, and their way of land stewardship (Youdelis et al., 2021; Mansuy et al., 2023; Townsend and Roth, 2023). European settlers perceived the land primarily as a Highlights Land colonization Deforestation, land use change, and permanent settlements. Evolving practice Urban forestry has evolved from pest control to addressing broader issues such as green infrastructure, asset management, and natural climate solutions. Public interest and stewardship Growing environmental and social concerns have increased public interest in urban forests, leading to greater community involvement and stewardship. Ongoing development Urban forestry in Canada evolves to meet new challenges and opportunities as urban areas continue to grow. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 11 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 12 resource for extraction and an opportunity for short-term pro�t. This mindset led to rapid changes and degradation of the forests and lands. What was once a lush landscape, rich with forests and wetlands, was permanently changed due to deforestation, resource extraction, and the establishment of permanent settlements, villages, towns, and farms. European settlers established permanent villages and towns, introducing various new land use practices, including farms, residential areas, permanent roads, railways, parks, cemeteries, and industrial zones, to name a few. These changes in land use, coupled with a century of intensive deforestation and degradation, resulted in environmental problems such as erosion and stream sedimentation within a few decades of settlement (e.g. In Ontario by the late 1800s). Driven by the economic cost that environmental degradation and deforestation caused, the �rst government- led conservation movement started in Ontario at the turn of the 20 century. Trees, once seen solely as timber value and revenue, were recognized as being important for stabilizing soils, sheltering homes from winds, providing shade, stopping stream sedimentation, and providing food and beauty around homes and settlements.  Due to poor environmental conditions in urban areas, city dwellers began to yearn for more green spaces and escape to natural surroundings outside the cities. This prompted the creation of some of the �rst parks within or in proximity to urban centres, such as Stanley Park in Vancouver, BC (1888), High Park in Toronto, ON (1873), Mont-Royal Park in Montreal, QC (1876), and Point Pleasant Park in Halifax, NS (1866). These early urban parks are now iconic and indispensable to the urban fabric of these cities.  The creation of natural and manicured parks, urban tree plantings, and the practice of European-style gardening and beauti�cation spread across towns and villages and expanded over time. Urban trees were planted and enjoyed for their shade, exotic properties, and beauty. As such, groups dedicated to ‘urban greening’ started to form in cities, such as the Toronto Parks, Forestry and Recreation group established in 1884 under the name "Committee on public walks and gardens", and the "Vancouver Park Board" in 1886. For Ottawa, the �rst municipal response related to urban trees was a bylaw passed in 1869 (Dean, 2005).  In the early 1900s, a devastating fungal pathogen called Dutch Elm Disease (DED) th Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 12 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 13 reached Canada and decimated American elms (Ulmus americana), one of the most popular urban trees. Thus, the urban tree canopy of many cities in eastern Canada, at the time dominated by elms, was lost. Following the DED outbreak and tree canopy loss across eastern parts of the country, the public and decision-makers started to realize the gap left by the loss of many trees in their communities. The severity of canopy loss from one single pathogen also highlighted the risk of narrow tree selection and the vulnerability of overplanting one singular tree species. It also highlighted the need to strategically manage urban trees and parks to prevent such catastrophes in the future. In the 1960s, this vulnerability was recognized by a forward-thinking forest pathologist named Dr. Erik Jorgensen, who was conducting research on tree diseases, including DED, at the University of Toronto. Prevention and tree-protection measures had been one of the main focuses of his work for nearly a decade. In the 1950s, he estimated that ninety percent of the trees on the University of Toronto St. George campus were American elms (Ulmus americana) vulnerable to DED (Dean, 2009). As a researcher, he witnessed the devastation that DED caused while recognizing that the problem could have been mitigated by proper tree management and care. Dr. Jorgensen and Brigadier J. F. Westhead lobbied municipal politicians and representatives to create a united front against DED, establishing the Dutch Elm Disease Control Committee for Metro Toronto in 1962.  Eventually, the loss of elms and tree canopy in urban areas was so signi�cant that Dr. Jorgenson coined the term "urban forestry" in 1974 and pioneered the �rst urban forestry program at the University of Toronto. Once de�ned, urban forests became more recognized and urban tree management and similar departments were created in larger cities, such as Toronto in 1965 and Montreal in 1977 (Jorgensen, 1974; Desbiens, 1998). While these departments were under various names, such as parks and recreation, they started to practice ‘urban forestry’ and related activities. In many cities, these departments have since been re-named and are now urban forestry departments, while some cities still practice ‘urban forestry’ under various municipal departments (Puric-Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2023) or agencies within a city. For example, urban forests and trees in Ottawa are managed by several bodies, including the National Capital Commission, the Federal Ministry of Transportation, Hydro Ottawa, Planning, Infrastructure and Economic Development Department, and the Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 13 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 14 Public Works and Environmental Services Department, to name a few (Bider, 2024).  In the mid-1970s, with the expansion of urban forestry across larger municipalities, the Dutch Elm Disease Control Committee of Toronto (piloted by Dr. Jorgensen) expanded into the Ontario Shade Tree Council, a province-wide network with a broader mandate of managing trees in the urban area (Dean, 2009). About the same time, the �rst federal urban forestry program called 'A Forest for Man’ started. While it only lasted until 1979, the movement continued with the �rst International Conference on Urban Forests that same year, which was held at Laval University (Rosen & Tree Canada, 2015).  In the next couple of decades, while many municipalities across Canada had developed urban forestry or urban forestry-related departments, there was still a lack of cohesion across provincial and national scales. To address this gap, an NGO called Tree Canada was established in 1992 (Tree Canada, 2024). Being the only national NGO with an urban forestry portfolio, Tree Canada partnered with the Ontario Shade Tree Council as well as professionals pioneering urban forestry in Canada to organize the �rst Canadian Urban Forest Conference (CUFC) in 1993 in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Tree Canada continued to organize bi-annual conferences, allowing professionals from across Canada to gather and share new innovations and knowledge regarding urban forestry practices, policies, and research (Tree Canada, 2024; Tree Canada, 1993). As an outcome of the 5th Canadian Urban Forest Conference in 2003, the Canadian Urban Forest Network (CUFN) Listserv for urban forestry was formed and the Canadian Urban Forest Network was established as a result (CANUFNET, 2024; CUFN, n.d.). Urban forestry in Canada continued to evolve from the 1990s to the early 2000s. Another urban forest vulnerability wake-up call came in the early 2000s due to the impact of the Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) and the loss of ash trees across Ontario and Quebec. Once again, the loss of urban trees prompted increased interest in the conservation of trees, resulting in another jump in urban forestry programs across municipalities. In addition, urban forests and urban forestry were integrated for the �rst time into Canada's National Forest Strategy for 2003-2008 (NFSC, 2003). Since 2010, urban forestry as a �eld has grown across Canada, and about 50% of municipalities with a population greater than 3,000 are funding some form of urban Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 14 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 15 forestry or urban greening department (Puric-Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2023). As new environmental and social issues arise in urban areas across Canada, public interest in urban forest conservation and community stewardship of trees is increasing. The goals and values of urban forestry are continually evolving. What initially started as a response to pest control has expanded to include various aspects of urban trees, their value, and management. New topics have emerged, such as green infrastructure, asset management involving trees, and natural climate solutions. Urban forestry in Canada has a rich history, and it continues to develop alongside the growth and intensi�cation of urban areas as well as public awareness about trees and urban forests. Resources Andresen, J. W., & Swaigen, J. (1978). Urban tree and forest legislation in Ontario (No. 0-X–282). Canadian Forestry Service. Artelle, K. A., Zurba, M., Bhattacharyya, J., Chan, D. E., Brown, K., Housty, J., et al. (2019). Supporting resurgent indigenous-led governance: a nascent mechanism for just and effective conservation. Biological Conservation, 240:108284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108284  Canadian Society of Landscape Architecture. (n.d.). Urban Canopy Resources. https://www.csla-aapc.ca/mission-areas/urban-canopy-resources Canadian Urban Forest Network (CANUFNET). (2024). Canadian Urban Forest Network (CUFN) Listserv. http://list.web.net/lists/listinfo/canufnet  Canadian Urban Forest Network (CUFN). (n.d.). Canadian Urban Forest Network – Canada's largest network of urban forestry professionals. https://treecanada.ca/research-engagement/canadian-urban-forest-network/  Dean, J. (2009). Seeing trees, thinking forests: Urban Forestry at the University of Toronto in the 1960s. In A. A. MacEachern & W. J. Turkel, Method and meaning in Canadian environmental history. Desbiens, E. (1988). Urban Forestry in Quebec. Journal of Agriculture, 14(1), 24-26. DOI https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.1988.007  Dietz, S., Beazley, K. F., Lemieux, C. J., St Clair, C., Coristine, L., Higgs, E., et al. (2021). Emerging issues for protected and conserved areas in Canada. Facets 6, 1892–1921. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-0072  Sources Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 15 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 16 Jorgensen, E. (1974). Towards an Urban Forestry Concept. Proceedings of the 10th Commonwealth Forestry Conference. Ottawa, Canada; Forestry Service. Mansuy, N., Staley, D., Alook, S., Parlee, B., Thomson, A., Littlechild, D. B., et al. (2023). Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs): Canada's new path forward for biological and cultural conservation and indigenous well-being. Facets 8, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2022-0118  Moola, F., Jolly, H., Borah, J. and Roth, R. (2024). The potential for Indigenous-led conservation in urbanized landscapes in Canada. Frontiers in Human Dynamics, 6, 1340379. https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2024.1340379  National Forest Strategy Coalition (NFSC). (2003). National Forest Strategy 2003-2008 – a sustainable forest, the Canadian commitment. 27pp. https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/23638_e.pdf  Ontario Urban Forest Council (OUFC). (2023). History of OUFC - Ontario Urban Forest Council (OUFC). https://oufc.org/index.php/history-of-oufc/  Puric-Mladenovic, D. and Bardekjian, A. (2023). Canada's Urban Forest Footprint: Mapping the Extent and Intensity of Urban Forestry Activities. Forests in Settled & Urban Landscapes applied science and research lab. Daniels Faculty, University of Toronto. John H. Daniels Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Design, University of Toronto. Reo, N. J., Whyte, K. P ., McGregor, D., Smith, M. A., and Jenkins, J. F. (2017). Factors that support indigenous involvement in multi-actor environmental stewardship. AlterNative 13, 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1177180117701028  Rosen, M. & Tree Canada. (2015). A brief historical perspective of urban forests in Canada. In Urban Forest Series: Vol. Volume I (pp. 27–32). http://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Article-2-EN-2015-Historical-Perspective-Urban- Forests.pdf  Townsend, J., and Roth, R. (2023). Indigenous and decolonial futures: indigenous protected and conserved areas as potential pathways of reconciliation. Frontiers in Human Dynamics, 5, 970. https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2023.1286970  Tree Canada. (2024). Who we are - Tree Canada. Tree Canada. https://treecanada.ca/about-us/who-we-are/ Tree Canada. (1993). Proceedings of the First Canadian Urban Forest Conference – May 30-June 2, 1993. Canadian Forestry Association: Ottawa.  Youdelis, M., Townsend, J., Bhattacharyya, J., Moola, F., and Fobister, J. B. (2021). Decolonial conservation: establishing indigenous protected areas for future generations in the face of extractive capitalism. Journal of Political Ecology, 28:4716. https://doi.org/10.2458/jpe.4716  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 16 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 17 Benefits of Urban Forests Urban trees, individually or collectively as urban forests, provide diverse ecological services, some of which can be monetized and provide economic value to society. Ecological services of urban forests, in general, include regulating, provisioning, supporting, and cultural services (Filho et al., 2020). Urban forest regulating services have the ability to moderate the environment via climate regulation, �ood control, air pollution removal, and carbon storage. Provisioning services provide tangible products such as food, water, wood, and medicinal plants (Visentin, 2019). Supporting services are natural processes that sustain life, including nutrient cycling, soil creation, biodiversity, habitat, oxygen production, photosynthesis, biomass production, erosion control, and the water cycle (Przewoźna, 2022). For example, urban forests support biodiversity through pollination and seed dispersal, and provide wildlife habitats for birds, mammals, and invertebrate species (FAOUN, 2022; Pickett et al., 2016). Cultural services of urban forests bene�t humans when they directly or indirectly interact with trees. Compared to regulating, provisioning, and supporting services, cultural services are often harder to quantify and monetize, yet they improve the quality of human life by providing aesthetic, recreational, and restorative values (NWF, n.d.). The practice of urban forestry, which includes management and planning associated with maintaining and protecting urban forests Highlights Ecological and economic value Urban forests regulate climate, improve air quality, support biodiversity, and provide economic bene�ts. Climate and urban sustainability Canadian cities are expanding urban forests to combat climate change, enhance health, and improve livability. Quantifying urban forest benefits Canadian municipalities use a range of tools to assess urban forest structure, map ecological services, and guide decision-making. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 17 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 18 and green spaces, also supports a steady �ow of ecological services to society (Tree Canada, 2019; Salmond et al., 2016). It also provides economic bene�ts in terms of job creation, reduced infrastructure maintenance, and other direct and indirect bene�ts (Filho et al., 2020). Climate & Urban Sustainability With rising concerns about climate instability and government commitments to environmental sustainability and biodiversity conservation, urban forests and urban green spaces are being recognized as natural climate solutions and integral tools for improving the quality of life in urban areas. With nearly 75% of Canadians living in urban/metropolitan areas (StatCan, 2022), integrated land use planning and urban forest management efforts are required to maintain the quality of urban life and city livability in the face of climate change and environmental challenges.  As the negative impacts of climate change, urban sprawl, and intensi�ed development continue to grow, public awareness of environmental issues is also on the rise. Many people recognize the importance of urban forests and the ecological services they provide. As a result, urban forestry has become a prominent topic in discussions related to municipal policy and decision-making across Canada. Recognizing these challenges and the need to increase urban forest cover to obtain the bene�ts that trees provide, Canadian cities have set some of the most ambitious urban forest canopy goals. For example, many major Canadian cities, including Vancouver, Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, and Winnipeg, have pledged to increase urban tree canopy cover by more than 25% by 2030 (CCI, 2021), and Toronto has set an ambitious 40% target by 2050. For example, with over 11.5 million trees and around 1,500 urban parks and green spaces, Toronto has been integrating urban forest into urban land use fabric with an aim to become one of the most forested cities in Canada (City of Toronto, 2024; City of Toronto, n.d.).  The bene�ts of urban forests across various land uses and green spaces are far- reaching in Toronto. According to multiple health indicators, notably cardiovascular and respiratory health (StatCan, 2019), Toronto is one of the healthiest cities in Canada. Other Canadian cities, such as Ottawa, Winnipeg, and Metro Vancouver, are also developing and implementing management, operations, maintenance, and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 18 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 19 protection strategies to manage urban green spaces and receive the full bene�ts of urban forests and green spaces. Ecological services provided by urban forests and green spaces have been shown to vastly improve the quality of life in urban areas by also improving mental health and promoting social cohesion (Tree Canada, 2019). Epidemiological studies have shown that even brief experiences in natural settings can reduce neural activity in the subgenual prefrontal cortex, indicating a reduction in feelings of stress and anxiety (Bratman et al., 2015). When congruent experiments were conducted in urban areas lacking nature, the same effects were not observed (Bratman et al., 2015).  Medical studies highlight urban naturalized areas and green space as essential for enhancing mental health in urban environments (Astell-Burt & Feng, 2019; Rugel, Carpiano, Henderson & Brauer, 2019). A direct link has also been drawn between tree canopy cover and social capital, where urban neighbourhoods with more tree cover have more social networks and a greater sense of cohesion, and also further bene�t from improved mental health (Holtan, Dieterlan & Sullivan, 2014).  When access to treed green spaces is available, Canadians tend to use them, increasing the likelihood of social interaction while encouraging diverse recreation activities across all demographic spectrums (Koley, Kuo & Sullivan, 1997). Proximity and availability of green space within urban areas encourage physical activity, which further bene�ts the mental health of urban residents while improving general indicators of physical health (FAOUN, 2022). Greener urban areas have shown a positive association with better cardiovascular health, lower blood pressure, reduced incidences of obesity, asthma and diabetes, and improved memory and attention span (Richardson et al., 2013; Pretty et al., 2006; Kim, Lee & Ramos, 2021; Tree Canada, 2024; Kardan et al., 2015).  In addition, urban trees are also crucial bio�lters because they capture atmospheric pollutants and particulates in city air, keep the air cleaner, and reduce the severity of respiratory-related conditions and illnesses (Wolf et al., 2020). Urban trees in Canada are responsible for sequestering and neutralizing around 2.5 million metric tonnes of atmospheric carbon every year (Steenberg et al., 2023). Trees can reduce ambient temperatures by 2-5 degrees Celsius in urbanized areas, combating negative health outcomes related to high temperatures in summer months (NRCan, 2016).    Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 19 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 20 Quantifying Urban Forest Benefits  Urban areas with extensive and diverse green spaces and strong urban forestry practices bene�t from increased urban forest ecological services (FAOUN, 2022). Overall, urban forests across cities in Canada provide various bene�ts, and many municipalities have quanti�ed and mapped urban forest services (i-Tree, 2024; Town of Oakville, 2016). Urban forest inventory and monitoring are a foundational step toward quantifying urban forests and the bene�ts they provide. Depending on the method and tools used, it is possible to estimate and quantify urban forest services and track them over time by utilizing urban canopy mapping, tree species measurements, and tree health data.  One such tool used for estimating ecological services is i-TreeEco, developed by the USDA Forest Service. i-Tree provides forestry analysis tools at the level of individual trees to entire stands, bene�ts assessment tools, and a database to support quantifying forest structure and guide decision-making (i-Tree, n.d.). i-Tree has been used across over 20 municipalities in Canada to estimate ecological services (i-Tree, n.d.).    Resources Alexander, C. & DePratto, B. (2014). The Value of Urban Forests in the Cities Across Canada (report). TD Economics. https://economics.td.com/domains/economics.td.com/documents/reports/PDF%20modi�cation/ UrbanForestCanadianCities.pdf  Canadian Climate Institute (CCI). (2021). Case Study:Growing Forests in a City. https://climatechoices.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Urban-Trees-study_May11b.pdf  Environment and Climate Change Canada. (2024). Canada’s 2030 Nature Strategy: Halting and Reversing Biodiversity Loss in Canada. Gatineau: Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/biodiversity/2030-nature- strategy.html Green Municipal Fund, Tree Canada. (n.d.). Webinar recording: The business case for planting trees. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/webinar-recording-business-case-planting-trees  Hotte, N., Nesbitt, L., Barron, S., Cowan, J., and Cheng, C. Z. (2015). The social and economic values of Canadian National Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 20 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 21 Canada’s urban forests: A national synthesis. Vancouver: UBC Faculty of Forestry. https://urbanforestry.sites.olt.ubc.ca/�les/2016/09/The-Social-and-Economic-Values-of- Canada%E2%80%99s-Urban-Forests-A-National-Synthesis-2015.pdf  i-Tree. (2024). International Reports (by nation) - Canada. https://www.itreetools.org/support/resources-overview/i-tree-international/reports-nation Natural Resources Canada. (2022). The state of Canada’s forests: Annual report 2019 – Urban Forests. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2020/rncan-nrcan/Fo1-6-2019-eng.pdf Natural Resources Canada. (2016). The State of Canada’s Forests – Annual Report 2016. https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/37265.pdf  Tree Canada. (2019). Canadian Urban Forestry Strategy 2019-2024. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/TC-CUFS-2019-2024-Eng.pdf Tree Canada. (n.d.). Canadian Urban Forest Network. City of Edmonton. (2024). Urban Forestry Operations. https://www.edmonton.ca/residential_neighbourhoods/gardens_lawns_trees/urban-forestry- operations City of Edmonton. (n.d.). Trees and Urban Forestry. https://www.edmonton.ca/residential_neighbourhoods/gardens_lawns_trees/trees-urban-forestry CTV News. (2024). How Edmonton's city design changes the impact of heat waves. https://edmonton.ctvnews.ca/how-edmonton-s-city-design-changes-the-impact-of-heat- waves-1.6958741 City of Surrey. (2021). Urban heat ready: A conversation guide for Surrey residents. https://www.surrey.ca/sites/default/�les/media/documents/ Surrey%20Urban%20Heat%20Ready%20Conversation%20Guide.pdf City of Vancouver. (n.d). Vancouver’s urban forest. https://vancouver.ca/parks-recreation-culture/urban-forest-strategy.aspx City of Vancouver. (n.d.). Parks, forestry & recreation. https://vancouver.ca/parks-recreation-culture/parks-and-recreation.aspx Guse, B., Downing, S., Zhang, J., Rahmati, H., & Brian, C. (n.d.). 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Urban Forestry in Manitoba. https://www.gov.mb.ca/nrnd/forest/pubs/forest_lands/health/urban_forestry.pdf  City of Fredericton. (n.d.). Fredericton Urban Forest Management Strategy interactive story map. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/0c29bb6e2882467e9564636a3887bf1f?cover=false Government of New Brunswick. (n.d.). Forestry and Conservation. https://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/erd/forestry-conservation.html  City of St. John’s. (n.d.). Planning and Development – Landscaping and Urban Forest. https://www.stjohns.ca/en/building-development/landscaping-and-urban-forest.aspx  Nature Newfoundland & Labrador. (2020). Urban forests and climate change in Newfoundland. https://naturenl.ca/urban-forests-and-climate-change-in-newfoundland/ Shape your City Halifax. (n.d.). Urban Forest Management Plan. https://www.shapeyourcityhalifax.ca/urban-forest-management-plan Alexander, C. & DePratto, B. (2014). Urban Forests: The Value of Trees in the City of Toronto. 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About & Tools Info web pages. https://www.itreetools.org/about Quebec Saskatchewan Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 24 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 25 Astell-Burt, T., Feng, X. (2019). Association of Urban Green Space with Mental Health and General Health Among Adults in Australia. JAMA Network Open, 2(7), e198209. doi:10.1001/ jamanetworkopen.2019.8209 Bratman, G.N., Hamilton, J.P ., Hahn, K.S., Daily, G.C., Gross, J.J. (2015). Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 112(28), 8567-72. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26124129/  Coley, R., Kuo, M., and Sullivan, W. (1997). Where Does Community Grow? The Social Context Created by Nature in Urban Public Housing. Environment and Behavior, 29, 468-494. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391659702900402  Druckenmiller, H. (2022). Accounting for ecosystem service values in climate policy. Nature Climate Change, 12, 596–598. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01362-0  Druckenmiller, H (2023), “Estimating an economic value of forests: Evidence from tree mortality in the American West”, Technical Report. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5f60e3b9a38e910134a8aeab/ t/5fb6df90721aae50818579d2/1605820322700/JMP_11.19.2020.pdf  Ejiagha, I.R., Ahmed, M.R., Dewan, A, et al. (2022). Urban Warming of the Two Most Populated Cities in the Canadian Province of Alberta, and Its In�uencing Factors. Sensors22(8), 2894. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9032056/  Filho, W. L., Barbir, J., Sima, M., Kalbus, A., Nagy, G. J., Paletta, A., . . . Bonoli, A. (2020). Reviewing the role of ecosystems services in the sustainability of the urban environment: A multi-country analysis. 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Ecosystem Health and Sustainability 2(7), e01229. https://doi.org/10.1002/ehs2.1229  Pretty, J., Peacock, J., Sellens, M., & Gri�n, M. (2005). The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 15(5), 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603120500155963  Przewoźna, P ., Mączka, K., Mielewczyk, M. et al. (2022). Ranking ecosystem services delivered by trees in urban and rural areas. Ambio, 51(9),2043-2057. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13280-022-01722-2 Richardson, E. A., Pearce, J., Mitchell, R., ans Kingham, S. (2013). Role of physical activity in the relationship between urban green space and health. Public Health, 127(4),318-324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2013.01.004  Rollins, R. (2008). City of Nanaimo Urban Forest Study – City Trees and You: Results of Public Opinion Survey. City of Nanaimo. https://www.nanaimo.ca/docs/services/home-and-property/urbanforeststudy.pdf    Rugel, E. J., Carpiano, R. M., Henderson, S. B., & Brauer, M. (2019). Exposure to natural space, sense of community belonging, and adverse mental health outcomes across an urban region. Environmental Research, 171, 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.01.034  Salmond, J.A., Tadaki, M., Vardoulakis, S. et al. (2016). Health and climate related ecosystem services provided by street trees in the urban environment. Environmental Health, 15(Suppl 1), S36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-016-0103-6  Statistics Canada. (2019). Canadian Community Health Survey: Public use microdata �le, 2015/2016 https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/190107/dq190107b-eng.htm Statistics Canada. (2022). Canada's large urban centres continue to grow and spread. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220209/dq220209b-eng.htm Steenberg, J.W.N., Ristow, M., Duinker, P .N. et al. (2023). A national assessment of urban forest carbon storage and sequestration in Canada. Carbon Balance and Management,18(11). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-023-00230-4 van den Bosch, M. (2017). Impacts of urban forests on physical and mental health and wellbeing. In: Ferrini, F., Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C. C. & Alessio, F. (eds). Routledge handbook of urban forestry. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 26 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 27 Routledge: New York. 82-95. Chapter 6. ISBN 9781315627106. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315627106-6/impacts-urban-forests- physical-mental-health-wellbeing-matilda-van-den-bosch    Visentin, J. (2019). Urban Food Forestry (UFF), its Role in Canadian Urban Forestry Management Plans, and Integration into Thunder Bay, Ontario. Thesis submitted to Lakehead University. https://knowledgecommons.lakeheadu.ca/bitstream/handle/2453/4564/VisentinJ2019b-1b.pdf Wolf, K.L., Lam, S.T., McKeen, J.K., et al. (2020). Urban Trees and Human Health: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12),4371. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph17124371 Wolf, K. L. (2017). Social aspects of urban forestry and metro nature. In: Ferrini, F., Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C. C. & Alessio, F. (eds). Routledge handbook of urban forestry. Routledge: New York. 65-81. Chapter 5. ISBN 9781315627106. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315627106-5/social-aspects-urban- forestry-metro-nature-kathleen-wolf Ziter, C.D., Pedersen, E.J., Kucharik, C.J., and Turner, M.G. (2019). Scale-dependent interactions between tree canopy cover and impervious surfaces reduce daytime urban heat during summer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15) 7575-7580, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1817561116   Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 27 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 28 Trees and Urban Heat Island (UHI) One of the many bene�ts of the urban forest is its ability to ameliorate urban microclimate, cool large or small areas, and bene�t human health. Cities tend to have higher ambient air temperatures than rural areas due to the high heat absorption capacity of various building materials (GoC, 2022). Concrete, asphalt, and cement absorb sunlight and trap heat much more effectively than trees, parks, and �elds, leading to higher air temperatures in built-up areas (USEPA, 2024). Cities also produce their own heat, which is released by vehicles, air conditioners, and machinery (Climate Atlas of Canada, n.d.). Trees and green spaces can improve urban climate, reduce surface and air temperatures, cool the environment, improve the comfort of citizens by providing shade, and mitigate the effects of urban heat islands through evapotranspirative cooling (Yin et al., 2024; Schwaab et al., 2021). The combined effects of evapotranspiration and shading can reduce summer temperatures by 1–5°C (USEPA, 2008). The urban heat island effect in cities across the globe is ampli�ed by climate warming. Urban forests and green infrastructure are recognized as nature-based solutions and natural capital investments for addressing climate change impacts Highlights Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect Urban areas experience higher temperatures than rural areas. Urban forests Trees and green spaces help cool cities by reducing air temperatures, absorbing sunlight, and providing shade. Impact of urban greenery Cities with more trees see greater temperature reductions than those with fewer trees. Health and cost benefits Cooler cities experience fewer heat-related illnesses and lower energy costs. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 28 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 29 (IFC, 2024). Canada, like many other urbanized countries, is facing challenges related to climate change and the urban heat island effect. These issues include the impacts of heat on human health, infrastructure, biodiversity, and wildlife. Urban areas in British Columbia and Quebec have experienced extreme heat, leading to an increase in heat-related illnesses and mortality during heat waves in recent years (Poitras et al., 2018; Beugin et al., 2023). The extent and distribution of urban tree canopy in Canadian cities can signi�cantly bene�t both human and environmental health, especially during the summer months. As a result, urban trees and green spaces are becoming increasingly valuable as climate change continues to drive extreme weather events, such as heat waves and temperature �uctuations (Health Canada, 2020). UHI: Trees and Air Cooling Many studies have documented across the globe that during the summer peak, air temperature in large cities with heat-absorbing surfaces and lack of green space could be as much as 10-15°C hotter than surrounding areas, while at night, the difference can be up to 12°C (Joint Research Centre, 2022; Mentaschi et al., 2022). This higher air temperature across urban areas is referred to as the urban heat island effect (UHIE). The UHIE phenomenon also impacts many cities across Canada. For example, it reached the highest daytime value of 7.25°C for Vancouver and the highest nighttime UHI intensity at 4.36°C for Toronto (Duan, Agrawal, Sanchez- Azofeifa, and Welegedara, 2024). When gray infrastructure absorbs heat from the sun, this heat is retained and slowly released even after the sun goes down, which keeps city temperatures higher during the night (USEPA, 2024). Urban forests, trees, and urban greenery can help reduce UHIE by cooling city air temperatures through sunlight absorption, evapotranspiration, and interception of particulate matter. Evapotranspiration, the process that adds water to the air through evaporation from plants and surrounding soil, can reduce ambient air temperatures by 1-5°C (USEPA, 2024). Studies have found that greener urban areas are cooler on average than less-green urban areas, with urban forests having daytime temperatures about 1.5°C cooler than surrounding areas during summer months (Knight et al., 2021). Additionally, by intercepting greenhouse gases and particulate matter associated with air pollution from dust, car exhaust, and wild�res, urban trees use Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 29 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 30 their leaves and needles to �lter the air and reduce ground-level temperature by offsetting greenhouse gas emissions and reducing smog in cities (Knight et al., 2021). Urban tree canopies provide much-needed shade and can reduce the amount of sunlight absorbed by gray infrastructure like buildings and roads (SFI, 2024). They help decrease the severity of this UHI effect by intercepting sunlight before it reaches buildings and roads. Additionally, the shade provided by urban trees can help decrease cooling-related energy costs by up to 7% in summer months by reducing the amount of sunlight absorbed by building exteriors, reducing cooling energy costs (Nowak, 2017). In addition to urban forests, green roof technologies can reduce roof surface temperature by up to 20°C, further asserting the bene�ts of vegetation and green spaces (USEPA, 2024).  Canadian municipalities such as Kingston, Vancouver, and Surrey have successfully implemented diverse urban forestry initiatives to combat high temperatures and climate change. For example, Kingston’s urban forest has helped to combat the urban heat island effect by improving thermal comfort and reducing energy consumption associated with cooling (Guilbault, 2016). The City of Vancouver analyzed local climate zones to optimize tree planting locations, ensuring that urban trees contribute effectively to maintaining outdoor thermal comfort (Aminipouri et al., 2019); this approach highlights the value of local and site-speci�c urban forest planning strategies. Additionally, the City of Surrey has engaged residents in urban heat readiness by developing a conversation guide emphasizing the role of urban trees in mitigating heat waves and improving community resilience (City of Surrey, 2021). These are some examples of novel approaches to utilizing urban forestry as a tool to combat climate change and enhance human health in urban areas in Canada. UHI: Human Health As the climate changes in Canada, the role of trees in cooling urban areas and supporting human health becomes increasingly important. Urban forests serve as a crucial climate change mitigation measure. With rising summertime temperatures, the ability of trees to cool the air and provide shade is an essential resource for public health in Canada. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 30 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 31 Heat waves and excessive temperatures yearly contribute to many illnesses and deaths in Canadian cities; these high temperatures can induce heat cramps, respiratory di�culties, heat stroke, and even heat-related mortality (GoC, 2020; Chen et al., 2016). By increasing daytime temperatures and reducing nighttime cooling, the urban heat island effect is responsible for over 45 deaths in Canada annually (StatCan, 2024). Young children under the age of 5, older people over the age of 65, people with chronic illnesses, homeless people, and low-income, low canopy cover communities are particularly at risk when it comes to heat-related illnesses and mortality (Climate Atlas of Canada, n.d.; Whittingham et al., 2022).   Urban trees can reduce the severity of these health hazards through air cooling and shade provision, and the City of Toronto became the �rst Canadian municipality to develop a policy speci�cally related to urban trees and heat. In collaboration with many city departments and NGOs such as Parks, Forestry and Recreation, Child Services, Tree Canada, and LEAF, Toronto Public Health formed an interdisciplinary team to develop the �rst Shade Policy in Canada (City of Toronto, 2007, 2010). This initiative, led by the Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition between 2005-2015, is the �rst of its kind. It represents an important step towards preparing for a warmer climate with increased frequency and duration of extreme heat events.  The Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition's shade policy initiative is a testament to the importance of shade in protecting against skin cancer. Integrating shaded areas, especially where the shade is created by trees, into urban parks, streets, schools, and facilities draws an important connection between urban forestry, urban planning, and public health (Sivarajah, Thomas & Smith, 2020). This policy o�cially recognized the value of shade trees in cities, especially large trees with dense canopies, in providing shade and lowering air temperatures, and created a policy framework to incorporate shade provision into planning, bylaws, and climate change and energy action plans (City of Toronto, 2010).   Resources Canadian Institute for Climate Choices (CICC). (2021). Growing Forests in a City – Urban Tree Study. Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 31 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 32 https://climatechoices.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Urban-Trees-study_May11b.pdf  City of Surrey. (2021). Urban heat ready: A conversation guide for Surrey residents. https://www.surrey.ca/    Climate Atlas of Canada. (n.d.) Urban Heat Island Effect. Prairie Climate Centre. https://climateatlas.ca/urban-heat-island-effect  Climate Atlas of Canada. (n.d.) Forests and Climate Change. Prairie Climate Centre. https://climateatlas.ca/urban-forests-and-climate-change  Government of Canada (GoC). (2020). Climate Change and Health - Adaptation Bulletin. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/environmental-workplace-health/reports- publications/climate-change-health/climate-change-health-adaptation-bulletin-number-1- november-2009-revised-december-2010-health-canada-2009.html  Government of Canada (GoC). (2022). Urban heat islands tools and resources. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/climate-change-health/urban-heat-islands-tools- resources.html  Health Canada. (2020). Reducing Urban Heat Islands to Protect Health in Canada: An Introduction for Public Health Professionals. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/documents/services/health/publications/healthy-living/ reducing-urban-heat-islands-protect-health-canada/Reducing-Urban-Heat-EN.pdf  HealthyPlan. (n.d.). HealthyPlan City – Explore Equity in Your City. https://healthyplan.city/en  Natural Resources Canada. (2020). The State of Canada’s Forests. Annual Report 2019. Canadian Forest Service, Ottawa. 80 p. https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.505771/publication.html Toronto Public Health. (2014). Partners in Action - Shade Policy for the City of Toronto [video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jg1jD6E43Z4  Wang, Y., & Akbari, H. (2016). The effects of street tree planting on Urban Heat Island mitigation in Montreal. Sustainable Cities and Society, 27, 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.04.013    United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2008). Reducing urban heat islands: Compendium of strategies [Draft]. https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/heat-island-compendium.  United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2024). Learn About Heat Islands. https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/learn-about-heat-islands United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2024). Using Trees and Vegetation to Reduce Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 32 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 33 Heat Islands. https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/using-trees-and-vegetation-reduce-heat-islands  USDA Northwest Climate Hub. (n.d.). Northwest Urban Forests and Climate Change. United States Department of Agriculture. https://www.climatehubs.usda.gov/hubs/northwest/topic/northwest-urban-forests-and-climate- change  Joint Research Centre. (2022). Cities are often 10-15 °C hotter than their rural surroundings. European Commission. https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/jrc-news-and-updates/cities-are-often-10-15-degc-hotter- their-rural-surroundings-2022-07-25_en   Aminipouri, M., Rayner, D., Lindberg, F., Thorsson, S., Knudby, A. J., Zickfeld, K., Middel, A., & Krayenhoff, E. S. (2019). Urban tree planting to maintain outdoor thermal comfort under climate change: The case of Vancouver’s local climate zones. Building and Environment, 158, 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.05.022  Beugin, D., Clark, D., Miller, S., Ness, R., Pelai, R. and Wale, J. (2023). The case for adapting to extreme heat: Costs of the 2021 B.C heat wave. Canadian Climate Institute. https://climateinstitute.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/The-case-for-adapting-to-extreme-heat-costs- of-the-BC-heat-wave.pdf  Boudreault, J., Lavigne, É., Campagna, C & Chebana, F. (2024). Estimating the heat-related mortality and morbidity burden in the province of Quebec, Canada. Environmental Research, 257,119347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.119347  Chen, H., Wang, J., Li, Q., Yagouti, A., Lavigne, E., Foty, R., ... Copes, R. (2016). Assessment of the effect of cold and hot temperatures on mortality in Ontario, Canada: a population-based study. CMAJ Open, 4(1), E48. http://www.cmajopen.ca/content/4/1/E48.abstract  City of Vancouver. (n.d.). VanPlay Strategic Bold Moves, Equity Tool: Initiative Zones. https://vancouver.ca/�les/cov/vanplay-strategic-bold-moves-equity-chapter.pdf  City of Toronto. (2007). Policy for the Provision of Shade at Parks, Forestry and Recreation Sites. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2008/pe/bgrd/background�le-10540.pdf Duan, Y., Agrawal, S., Sanchez-Azofeifa, A., and Welegedara, N. (2024). Urban Heat Island Effect in Canada: Insights from Five Major Cities [pre-print]. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4965331  Evergreen. (2022). Feeling the heat? Here’s how cities are �ghting the Urban Heat Island effect. https://www.evergreen.ca/stories/feeling-the-heat-heres-how-cities-are-�ghting-the-urban-heat-island- effect/  Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 33 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 34 Evergreen. (2024). AI for the Resilient City. https://www.evergreen.ca/impacts/ai-for-the-resilient-city/ Graham, D. A., Vanos, J. K., Kenny, N. A. and Brown, R. D. (2016). The relationship between neighbourhood tree canopy cover and heat-related ambulance calls during extreme heat events in Toronto, Canada. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 20, 180-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.08.005  Guilbault, S. (2016). KINGSTON: Using the urban forest to mitigate the urban heat island effect (pp. 59–62). The Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction. https://www.iclr.org/wp-content/uploads/PDFS/11_Kingston.pdf    Han, L., Heblich, S.,Timmins, C., and Zylberberg, Y. (2023), Cool Cities: The Value of Green Infrastructure. NBER Working Paper 32063. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/cool-cities-value-urban-trees   Health Canada. (2020). Reducing Urban Heat Islands to Protect Health in Canada: An Introduction for Public Health Professionals. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/documents/services/health/publications/healthy-living/ reducing-urban-heat-islands-protect-health-canada/Reducing-Urban-Heat-EN.pdf  International Finance Corporation, Cool Coalition, UN Environment Program. (2024). Cooler Finance Mobilizing Investment for the Developing World’s Sustainable Cooling Needs [Final Report]. https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/2024/cooler-�nance-report.pdf  Knight, T., Price, S., Bowler, D. et al. How effective is ‘greening’ of urban areas in reducing human exposure to ground-level ozone concentrations, UV exposure and the ‘urban heat island effect’? An updated systematic review. Environmental Evidence 10, 12 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-021-00226-y  Mentaschi, L., Duveiller Bogdan, G.H.E., Zulian, G., Corban, C., Pesaresi, M., Maes, J., Stocchino, A. and Feyen, L. (2021). Global long-term mapping of surface temperature shows intensi�ed intra-city urban heat island extremes. Global Environmental Change, 72, 102441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102441.  Nowak, D. J. (2017). Urban Trees Save Billions of Dollars Through Reduced Energy Costs. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Northern Research Station, NY. https://research.fs.usda.gov/nrs/news/highlights/urban-trees-save-billions-dollars-through-reduced- energy-costs  Poitras, A., Austin, S., Barrow, E., Campagna, C., Chaumont, D., Gosselin, P . and Yagouti, A. (2018). Extreme heat waves in Québec. Climate Data. https://climatedata.ca/case-study/extreme-heat-waves-in-quebec/  Sivarajah, S., Thomas, S. C. & Smith, S. M. (2020). Evaluating the ultraviolet protection factors of urban broadleaf and conifer trees in public spaces. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 51, 126679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126679 Schwaab, J., Meier, R., Mussetti, G. et al. The role of urban trees in reducing land surface temperatures in Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 34 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 35 European cities. Nature Communications, 12, 6763 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26768-w  Standards Council of Canada (SCC). (2022). Urban Heat Island Mapping Workshop: What We Heard. Government of Canada. https://scc-ccn.ca/system/ �les/2024-05/20221206_uhi_what_we_heard_report_�nal_en_2023-04-04.pdf Statistics Canada (StatCan). (2024). Extreme heat events were associated with elevated risk of dying in Canada's largest cities from 2000 to 2020. Health Reports, June 2024. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/240619/dq240619b-eng.htm  Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition, Toronto Public Health, City of Toronto. (2010). Shade Guidelines. https://www.toronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/8ecf- AODA_Shade_Guidelines_2010_Final_Report-002.pdf  Whittingham, E., Vabi, V., Lalloo S. and Hak, S. (2022). Canada's Urban Forests: Bringing the Canopy to All. Nature Canada. https://naturecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Nature-Canada-Report-Tree-Equity.pdf  Yin, Y., Li, S., Xing, X., Zhou, X., Kang, Y., Hu, Q., & Li, Y. (2024). Cooling Bene�ts of Urban Tree Canopy: A Systematic Review. Sustainability, 16(12), 4955. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16124955  Ziter, C.D., Pedersen, E.J., Kucharik, C.J., and Turner, M.G. (2019). Scale-dependent interactions between tree canopy cover and impervious surfaces reduce daytime urban heat during summer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15) 7575-7580, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1817561116  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 35 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 36 Air Quality and Climate Change Urban forests, providing multiple ecosystem services, offer a natural and sustainable solution for improving the environmental quality of urban areas through air puri�cation, temperature regulation, and carbon sequestration. Trees, individually and collectively as part of urban forests, play a crucial role in enhancing air quality by �ltering pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO) and sulphur dioxide (SO ). By absorbing these pollutants, trees metabolize and convert them into less harmful substances. They also trap particulate matter (PM) on their leaves, needles, and bark, effectively reducing their concentrations in the air. Research by Nowak et al. (2018) has shown that urban forests in Canada remove substantial amounts of air pollutants annually, leading to signi�cant improvements in air quality and co- bene�ting public health. An urban tree can absorb anywhere between 10 and 40 kg of CO each year and can intercept up to 4.5 kg of pollutants such as NO , SO , dust, soot, and smoke (EcoTree, 2024; Vallet, 2005; Greener Seasons, 2022).  Urban forests play a crucial role in helping communities deal with the impacts of Highlights Urban forests and air quality Trees purify the air by trapping and �ltering pollutants like nitrogen, sulphur, and carbon dioxide. Carbon sequestration Urban trees help offset signi�cant greenhouse gas emissions through carbon dioxide sequestration. Management and planning Proper management, urban planning, and careful tree species selection are essential to maximizing air quality and climate bene�ts. Targeted planting areas Tree planting in heat-prone, high-tra�c, and low-canopy areas should be prioritized to improve air quality. 2 2 2 2 2 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 36 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 37 climate change. In addition to their air-purifying functions, trees aid in mitigating the urban heat island (UHI) effect, which exacerbates air pollution levels. Trees cool down urban areas by providing shade and releasing moisture through transpiration, thereby reducing ground-level ozone formation (McDonald et al., 2016). These cooling bene�ts are signi�cant as cities face warmer summers and more frequent and intense heat waves. Furthermore, the cooling effect of trees can result in lower energy usage in buildings, indirectly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, research conducted in Montreal demonstrated that planting more trees along streets could signi�cantly reduce the UHI effect, leading to lower temperatures and improved thermal comfort (Wang & Akbari, 2016). Urban forests also contribute signi�cantly to climate change mitigation by sequestering carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and acting as carbon sinks. Canadian urban forests already store signi�cant amounts of carbon (Pasher et al., 2014; McGovern & Pasher, 2016; Steenberg et al., 2023). Moreover, urban forests, as a natural climate solution, have the potential to sequester and store more carbon if the existing trees are managed effectively and new trees are planted strategically (Drever et al., 2021).  Carbon credit projects across Canada have promoted sustainable forest management, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation. However, urban forest carbon credit programs are less prevalent in urban areas than in rural and boreal forest initiatives in Canada.  In urban forests, due to limited space for tree growth, soil compaction, and pollution, which impact tree longevity, tree mortality, and ongoing carbon maintenance, urban forest carbon sequestration and storage present unique challenges. Urban forests have a relatively small biomass for carbon sequestration compared to rural forests. Additionally, the diverse ownership of urban forests and the high cost of investments associated with certi�cation further complicate the process of generating substantial carbon offset credits from urban trees. However, the importance of carbon sequestration has been recognized, and urban forest carbon programs offer an opportunity to enhance urban sustainability and contribute to climate change mitigation. The Sustainable Forestry Initiative's Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Standard and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Certi�cation standard can assist municipalities in developing frameworks that incorporate carbon storage into their urban forest management Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 37 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 38 plans (SFI, 2024; FSC, n.d.). The City of Mississauga attained FSC® certi�cation for its woodlands in 2024. In Canada, there are also localized, voluntary, and self- evaluated carbon offset programs for urban forests. These programs promote tree preservation and planting and carbon credits on a voluntary basis (University of Toronto, 2019). Mitigation and Management Strategies Maximizing these bene�ts requires effective urban forest management of the existing trees and strategic planning and implementation of tree planting. One critical component of planning future urban forests is appropriate tree species selection, as different species vary in their ability to contribute to air pollution removal and withstand changing climate conditions. Using climate analogues and vulnerability metrics to inform tree species selection ensures that urban forests remain resilient under future climate scenarios (Esperon-Rodriguez et al., 2022). Furthermore, integration of urban forest management into municipal climate policies can enhance the effectiveness of climate adaptation strategies. Aligning municipal climate change and urban forestry policies in Canadian cities can lead to more cohesive and robust adaptation frameworks that bene�t both urban forest and climate change mitigation (Cheng et al., 2021). Several Canadian municipalities have successfully implemented urban forestry initiatives to combat air quality issues and climate change. In Kingston, the impact of urban forests was critical in mitigating the UHI effect, improving thermal comfort, and reducing energy consumption for cooling (Guilbault, 2016). In Vancouver, local climate zones have been analyzed to optimize tree planting locations, ensuring that urban trees contribute effectively to maintaining outdoor thermal comfort (Aminipouri et al., 2019). This approach highlights the importance of local and site- speci�c strategies in urban forest planning. Moreover, the City of Surrey has developed a conversation guide to engage residents in urban heat readiness, emphasizing the role of urban trees in mitigating heatwaves and improving community resilience (City of Surrey, 2021). Municipalities and industry professionals consider several vital recommendations to maximize the bene�ts of urban forests, including those related to air quality. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 38 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 39 Sustaining healthy large-stature trees and promoting a diverse mix of long-lived and low-maintenance tree species enhances resilience against pests, diseases, and thus climate change while providing a more comprehensive range of ecosystem services (Wood & Dupras, 2021). Moreover, identifying priority areas for tree planting, such as heat-prone neighbourhoods and high-tra�c areas, can maximize air quality improvements and thermal comfort (Chan et al., 2007). Additionally, implementing more e�cient tree care, such as watering during droughts, can support the health of trees and enhance their role in mitigating climate change effects. These efforts can be supported by involving local communities in urban forestry initiatives through education and participation programs; engaged residents are more likely to support and care for urban trees, which can supplement municipal tree care efforts and ensure urban forestry's long-term success and sustainability (Bourque et al., 2021).   Finally, regular monitoring and maintenance programs are essential to ensure healthy and functional urban forests. Urban forests are indispensable assets for Canadian cities, offering signi�cant bene�ts for improving air quality and mitigating climate change. By strategically managing and expanding urban tree cover, municipalities and industry professionals can enhance urban resilience, improve urban environments, and create more livable and resilient cities (Cheng et al., 2024). Resources Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). (n.d.). Air quality. https://ccme.ca/en/air-quality-report Climate Atlas of Canada. (n.d.). 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Low-Carbon Action Plan 2019-2024. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2020/ec/bgrd/background�le-141837.pdf  Government of Prince Edward Island. (n.d.). Climate change. https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/topic/climate-change  Gouvernement du Québec. (2012). 2013-2020 Government Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation. https://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/changements/plan_action/stategie-adaptation2013-2020- en.pdf  Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 41 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 42 Gouvernement du Québec. (n.d.). Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. https://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/changementsclimatiques/strategie-adaptation-en.htm  Government of Saskatchewan. (2017). Prairie Resilience: A Made-in-Saskatchewan Climate Change Strategy — Canada in a Changing Climate. https://changingclimate.ca/map/prairie-resilience-a-made-in-saskatchewan-climate-change- strategy-2/ Government of Saskatchewan. (n.d.). Saskatchewan’s Climate Change Strategy | Climate Resilience in Saskatchewan. https://www.saskatchewan.ca/business/environmental-protection-and-sustainability/a-made-in- saskatchewan-climate-change-strategy/saskatchewans-climate-change-strategy Davey Institute. (n.d.). Hardiness zones map. https://hardinesszones.daveyinstitute.com/ Los Angeles Homes. (n.d.). Urban Heat Islands: The main issues and what is being done to combat them. https://www.lahomes.com/urban-heat-island-effect/ Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). (2024). SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Standard. https://forests.org/s�-urban-forestry-standard/  United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). (n.d.). 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Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. https://www.ccfm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Vulnerability-of-Canada%E2%80%99s-tree- species-to-climate-change-and-management-options-for-adaptation-Full-Report.pdf   Kenley, M. (2022). Recommendations for municipalities: Focus on urban tree cover. Canadian Environmental Law Association. https://cela.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/1485-CELA-Urban-Cover-Recommendation-FINAL.pdf   Khan, T., & Conway, T. M. (2020). Vulnerability of common urban forest species to projected climate change and practitioners' perceptions and responses. Environmental Management, 65(4), 534–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-020-01270-z   Livesley, S. J., McPherson, E. G., and Calfapietrac, C. (2016). The Urban Forest and Ecosystem Services: Impacts on Urban Water, Heat, and Pollution Cycles at the Tree, Street, and City Scale. Journal of Environmental Quality, 45(1), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2015.11.0567   McDonald, R., Kroeger, T., Boucher, T., Longzhu, W., Salem, R., Adams, J., Bassett, S., Edgecomb, M., & Snigda Garg. (2016). Planting Healthy Air: A global analysis of the role of urban trees in addressing particulate matter pollution and extreme heat. The Nature Conservancy. https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/20160825_PHA_Report_Final.pdf    Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 44 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 45 McGovern, M. and Pasher, J. (2016). Canadian urban tree canopy cover and carbon sequestration status and change 1990–2012. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 20(Supplement C), 227-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.09.002  Needoba, A., Porter, E., LeFrancois, C., Dobbs, C., Allen, J. B., Cox, T., & Coulthard, M. (2016). Urban Forest Climate Adaptation Framework for Metro Vancouver. Urban Forest Climate Adaptation Framework for Metro Vancouver. https://metrovancouver.org/services/regional-planning/Documents/urban-forest-climate-adaptation- framework-tree-species-selection.pdf   Nowak, D. J., & Heisler, G. M. (2010). Air quality effects of urban trees and parks. National Recreation and Park Association. https://www.nrpa.org/globalassets/research/nowak-heisler-research-paper.pdf   Nowak, D. J., Hirabayashi, S., Doyle, M., McGovern, M., & Pasher, J. (2018). Air pollution removal by urban forests in Canada and its effect on air quality and human health. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 29, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.10.019  Ordóñez, C., & Duinker, P . N. (2015). Climate change vulnerability assessment of the urban forest in three Canadian cities. Climatic Change, 131(4), 531–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1394-2   Pasher, J., McGovern, M., Khoury, M. and Duffe, J. (2014). Assessing carbon storage and sequestration by Canada's urban forests using high resolution earth observation data. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 13(3), 484-494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.05.001  Rams�eld, T. D., Bentz, B., Faccoli, M., Jactel, H., & Brockerhoff, E. G. (2016). Forest health in a changing world: effects of globalization and climate change on forest insect and pathogen impacts. Forestry an International Journal of Forest Research, 89(3), 245–252. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw018   Sousa-Silva, R., Lambry, T., Cameron, E., Belluau, M., & Paquette, A. (2023). Urban forests – Different ownership translates to greater diversity of trees. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 88, 128084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2023.128084   Steenberg, J. W. N., Ristow, M., Duinker, P . N., Lapointe-Elmrabti, L., MacDonald, J. D., Nowak, D. J., Pasher, J., Flemming, C., & Samson, C. (2023). A national assessment of urban forest carbon storage and sequestration in Canada. Carbon Balance and Management, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-023-00230-4   Thomas, B. R., Stoehr, M., Schreiber, S. G., Benowicz, B., Schroeder, W. R., Soolanayakanahally, ... Kort, J. (2024). Tree Improvement in Canada – past, present and future, 2023 and beyond. The Forestry Chronicle, 100(1). https://mffp.gouv.qc.ca/documents/forets/recherche/AP_thomas-et-al-2024-tree-improvement-in- canad.pdf   Tischenko, L., Williams, M., DeMerchant, I., Sambaraju, K., Zacharias, M., Soolanayakanahally, R., ...Porth, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 45 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 46 I. (2024). Oak genomics for nature-based solutions: shaping future forests and resilient landscapes in Canada. Tree Genetics & Genomes, 20(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11295-024-01645-x   Vahmani, P ., Jones, A.D. & Li, D. (2022). Will Anthropogenic Warming Increase Evapotranspiration? Examining Irrigation Water Demand Implications of Climate Change in California. Earth’s Future, 10(1), e2021EF002221. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EF002221 Vallet, P . (2005). Impact de différentes stratégies sylvicoles sur la fonction ”puits de carbone” des peuplements forestiers - Modélisation et simulation à l’échelle de la parcelle. Life Sciences [q-bio]. ENGREF (AgroParisTech). https://pastel.hal.science/pastel-00001635/document Wang, Y., & Akbari, H. (2016). The effects of street tree planting on Urban Heat Island mitigation in Montreal. Sustainable Cities and Society, 27, 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.04.013   Wieditz, I., & Penney, J. (2007). Climate change adaptation options for Toronto’s urban forest. In The Clean Air Partnership. Clean Air Partnership. http://www.cleanairpartnership.org   Wood, S., & Dupras, J. (2021). Increasing functional diversity of the urban canopy for climate resilience: Potential tradeoffs with ecosystem services? Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 58, 126972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126972   Zupancic, T., Westmacott, C., & Bulthuis, M. (2015). The impact of green space on heat and air pollution in urban communities: A meta-narrative systematic review. David Suzuki Foundation. https://davidsuzuki.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/impact-green-space-heat-air-pollution-urban- communities.pdf  C Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 46 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 47 Stormwater Management Urbanization and intensive land development have signi�cantly changed the permeability of urban landscapes and impacted their natural hydrological cycles and processes. Cities are becoming more vulnerable to heavy rainfall events that result in rapid runoff and �ooding (Kaykhosravi et al., 2020). With fewer natural forests and less natural vegetation, any reduction in tree canopy cover results in increased runoff and urban areas becoming more prone to �ooding. Urban forests, with adequate canopy cover, structure, and composition, have the potential to improve urban hydrology and reduce runoff (Berland et al., 2018; Kuehler, Hathaway & Tirpak, 2017; Xiao, McPherson, Simpson & Ustin, 1998).  However, to effectively manage urban forests for improving hydrology, many cities and towns globally lack appropriate areas for future tree planting. Canadian urban areas are no exception when it comes to these issues of urbanization, hydrology, and tree canopy.  Trees, individually and collectively as urban forests, play a crucial role in stormwater management. Strategically conserved, managed, and enhanced urban forests can provide a sustainable solution for Canadian municipalities experiencing environmental challenges. Urban trees and their canopies manage stormwater through evapotranspiration and by physically intercepting rainfall via leaves, Highlights Stormwater runoff and urbanization Impermeable surfaces in cities cause excessive stormwater runoff, increasing �ood risks and infrastructure damage. Role of urban forests Trees help restore natural water cycles by intercepting rainfall, stabilizing soil, and improving water absorption. Stormwater management strategies Expanding and improving urban tree canopy cover and soft surfaces is an effective way to reduce runoff and manage stormwater. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 47 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 48 branches, and tree trunks, thus reducing the volume of water that reaches the ground (Carlyle-Moses et al., 2020; Dowtin et al., 2023). However, interception and evapotranspiration are determined by morphological characteristics of tree species, tree size and stature, leaf area density, branching structure, and whether trees are planted in groups or individually (Berland et al., 2018; Kuehler, Hathaway & Tirpak, 2017; Xiao, McPherson, Simpson & Ustin, 1998). Additionally, tree roots stabilize the soil, improve soil structure and organic content, and increase the soil’s ability to absorb and �lter water. This reduces the load on stormwater management infrastructure, streams, and ponds, and lessens �ood risks while mitigating erosion and sedimentation in waterways (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2023). Urban trees also improve overall water quality (The Mersey Forest, 2014) by reducing runoff and toxic chemicals like metals, fuels, solvents, and other pollutants (USEPA, 2013). Urban forests with hydrological functions help protect properties and gray urban infrastructure by reducing �ooding and runoff during extreme weather events, which provides signi�cant economic bene�ts (Nesbitt et al., 2017). Many Canadian cities have created green development standards to incorporate trees and integrate urban forests into land use planning (see City of Toronto, 2023b; City of Mississauga, 2012; The Town of Halton Hills, 2019). By preserving and managing urban trees, municipalities reduce overall runoff from rainfall and increase soil absorption capacity, thus creating a more resilient urban environment, urban forest, and natural ecosystem (City of Mississauga, 2023; Ministry of Municipal Affairs, 2023). Implementation Strategies One of the most effective strategies for managing stormwater and reducing runoff is to increase both the coverage and quality of tree canopy. This can be accomplished by strategically planting trees in areas such as streets, parks, private properties, and various types of land use. To further enhance the advantages of urban forests, it is recommended to combine tree canopy conservation and planting with other forms of green infrastructure, such as rain gardens, green roofs, and permeable pavements. This integrated approach can signi�cantly improve stormwater management and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 48 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 49 maximize the bene�ts provided by urban forests (Carlyle-Moses et al., 2020; USEPA, 2024). More recently in Canada, various levels of government have been encouraging urban tree planting to increase canopy cover and improve urban environmental conditions, as well as to improve stormwater management (Green Infrastructure Ontario Coalition, 2016; City of Toronto, 2023a; City of Toronto, 2023b). To that effect, many Canadian municipalities have set goals or guidelines for stormwater management that utilize urban forests and increase tree canopy cover. For example, as per Toronto’s Green Standard Requirements, the City of Toronto aims to minimize runoff to at least 50 percent of its annual rainfall and, for some sites, retain at least 5 mm of rainfall (through rainwater reuse, on-site in�ltration, and evapotranspiration) from each rainfall event (City of Toronto, 2017). Aside from the various ecosystem services urban forests provide, urban trees also enable the saving of resources for managing gray infrastructure. The City of Surrey, for example, saved $4.8 million/year on stormwater infrastructure due to the presence of trees (City of Surrey & Urban Systems, 2023). Some municipalities, such as the City of Mississauga and the City of Kitchener, have implemented stormwater fees to encourage private landowners to reduce the hard surface on their properties. The fees are based on a percentage of impervious surfaces to encourage property owners to use green infrastructure and permeable surfaces to reduce localized runoff (Environmental Commissioner of Ontario, 2016). Resources Canadian Standards Association Group. (2022). The Municipal How to Guide for CSA Community Water Standards. In CSA Community Water Standards. https://www.csagroup.org/wp-content/uploads/CSAGroup-Municipal-WaterStandards-How-To- Guide.pdf  Clean Air Partnership (CAP). (2019). Sample Green Development Standards Metrics and Comparison Tables. https://council.cleanairpartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/CAP-Green-Development- Metrics-Low-Rise-Residential-and-Comparison-Scan.pdf  Depave Paradise. (2025). Projects – Check the calendar below to �nd Depave Paradise events near you. 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Green Development Standard. https://www.haltonhills.ca/en/residents/green-development-standard.aspx Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 52 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 53 Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). (2019). Stormwater Management - Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). https://trca.ca/conservation/stormwater-management/  Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA) & Credit Valley Conservation Authority. (2010). Low Impact Development Stormwater Management Planning and Design Guide. https://trcaca.s3.ca-central-1.amazonaws.com/app/uploads/2021/10/20091521/LID-SWM-Guide- v1.0_2010_1_no-appendices.pdf  Town of Caledon & Sustainability Solutions Group (SSG). (2024). Green Development Standard Guidebook. https://www.caledon.ca/en/town-services/resources/Energy-Environment/Caledon-GDS- Guidebook_Final.pdf  Gouvernement du Québec. (n.d.). Rainwater management. 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Publications Centre. https://publications.saskatchewan.ca/#/products/113259  Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. (2023). Drought and Climate Change. https://www.c2es.org/content/drought-and-climate-change/  Quebec Saskatchewan Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 53 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 54 Center for Urban Forest Research. (2003). Is all your rain going down the drain? The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/topics/urban_forestry/products/cufr_392_rain_down_the_drain.pdf  Davey Resource Group & U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). Stormwater to Street Trees: Engineering urban forests for stormwater management. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/�les/2015-11/documents/stormwater2streettrees.pdf Global Communications Team. (2019). Biodiversity in cities: How natural asset mapping helps cities protect livelihoods and address climate change impacts – CityTalk. ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability. https://talkofthecities.iclei.org/biodiversity-in-cities-how-natural-asset-mapping-helps-cities-protect- livelihoods-and-address-climate-change-impacts/  The Mersey Forest. (2014). Urban Catchment Forestry: the strategic use of urban trees and woodlands to reduce �ooding, improve water quality, and bring wider bene�ts. https://www.merseyforest.org.uk/�les/documents/1310/ Urban%20Catchment%20Forestry%20prospectus%20-%20�nal%20-%20Oct%202014.pdf  United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2023a). Using trees and vegetation to reduce heat islands. https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/using-trees-and-vegetation-reduce-heat-islands  United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2023b). Soak up the rain: Trees help reduce runoff. https://www.epa.gov/soakuptherain/soak-rain-trees-help-reduce-runoff  Bartens, J., Day, S. D., Harris, J. R., Dove, J. E., & Wynn, T. M. (2008). Can Urban Tree Roots Improve In�ltration through Compacted Subsoils for Stormwater Management? Journal of Environmental Quality, 37(6), 2048-2057. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2008.0117   Carlyle-Moses, D. E. (2012). Trees as green infrastructure in our cities. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/DCarlyle-Moses-Trees-as-Green-Infrastructure-in- our-Cities.pdf  Carlyle-Moses, D. E., Livesley, S., Baptista, M. D., Thom, J., & Szota, C. (2020). Urban Trees as Green Infrastructure for Stormwater Mitigation and Use. In D. F. Levia, D. E. Carlyle-Moses, S. i. Iida, B. Michalzik, K. Nanko, & A. Tischer (Eds.), Forest-Water Interactions (pp. 397-432). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26086-6_17   Carlyle-Moses, D. E., & Schooling, J. T. (2015). Tree traits and meteorological factors in�uencing the initiation and rate of stem�ow from isolated deciduous trees. Hydrological Processes, 29(18), 4083-4099. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10519   Dowtin, A. L., Cregg, B. C., Nowak, D. J., and Levia, D. F. (2023). Towards optimized runoff reduction by Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 54 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 55 urban tree cover: A review of key physical tree traits, site conditions, and management strategies. Landscape and Urban Planning, 239, 104849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104849  Frosi, M. H., Kargar, M., Jutras, P ., Prasher, S. O., & Clark, O. G. (2019). Street Tree Pits as Bioretention Units: Effects of Soil Organic Matter and Area Permeability on the Volume and Quality of Urban Runoff. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 230(7), 152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-019-4197-7   Garg, M., CaterinaValeo, Gupta, R., Prasher, S., Sharma, N. R., & Constabel, P . (2018). Integrating natural and engineered remediation strategies for water quality management within a low-impact development (LID) approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(29), 29304-29313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2963-5   Green Communities Canada. (2017c). Urban Flooding in Ontario: Towards Collective Impact Solutions. Rain Community Solutions. https://raincommunitysolutions.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GCC-UrbanFloodingMar17.pdf  Green Communities Canada, Living Cities Canada Fund. (2023). Living Cities Canada Fund 2023 Impact Report. https://greencommunitiescanada.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/LivingCitiesFundImpact2023- Final.pdf  Kaykhosravi, S., Khan, U. T., & Jadidi, M. A. (2020). The effect of climate change and urbanization on the demand for low impact development for three Canadian cities. Water, 12(5), 1280. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051280  Kirnbauer, M. C., Baetz, B. W., & Kenney, W. A. (2013). Estimating the stormwater attenuation bene�ts derived from planting four monoculture species of deciduous trees on vacant and underutilized urban land parcels. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 12(3), 401-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2013.03.003  Kuehler, E., Hathaway, J., & Tirpak, A. (2017). Quantifying the bene�ts of urban forest systems as a component of the green infrastructure stormwater treatment network. Ecohydrology, 10(3), e1813. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1813   Nesbitt, L., Hotte, N., Barron, S., Cowan, J., & Sheppard, S. R. J. (2017). The social and economic value of cultural ecosystem services provided by urban forests in North America: A review and suggestions for future research. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 25, 103-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.05.005  O'Neill, S. (2018). Measuring Urban Forest Canopy Effects on Stormwater Runoff in Guelph, Ontario. University of Guelph. http://hdl.handle.net/10214/12958     Orta-Ortiz, M.S. and Geneletti, D. (2022). What variables matter when designing nature-based solutions for stormwater management? A review of impacts on ecosystem services. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 95, 106802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2022.106802.  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 55 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 56 R. Bean, R. E. P ., J. Voorhees and M. Elliott. (2021). Urban Tree Rainfall Interception Measurement and Modeling in WinSLAMM, the Source Loading and Management Model. Journal of Water Management Modeling, 29. https://doi.org/10.14796/JWMM.C475  Schooling, J. T., & Carlyle-Moses, D. E. (2015). The in�uence of rainfall depth class and deciduous tree traits on stem�ow production in an urban park. Urban Ecosystems, 18(4), 1261-1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-015-0441-0   Van Stan, J. T., Norman, Z., Meghoo, A., Friesen, J., Hildebrandt, A., Côté, J.-F., Underwood, S. J., Maldonado, G. (2017). Edge-to-Stem Variability in Wet-Canopy Evaporation from an Urban Tree Row. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 165(2), 295-310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-017-0277-7   Xiao, Q., McPherson, E. G., Simpson J, R. and Ustin, S. L. (1998).  Rainfall Interception by Sacramento’s Urban Forest. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 24(4) 235-244. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.1998.028  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 56 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 57 Economic Value and Appraisal of Trees Urban forests provide numerous ecological and social functions that can be translated into economic value, �nancial bene�ts, and dollar value. Urban trees increase property values and reduce energy costs through natural cooling; also, treed and forested urban areas promote tourism and recreation, which can all be transformed into monetary value (Ewane et al., 2023; Nowak et al., 2017; Wolf et al., 2020). The economic value of trees can be assessed in several ways depending on the geography, purpose of the evaluation, and who is performing the evaluation. For example, trees can be valued for their intrinsic value (e.g., diversity, complexity, beauty, spiritual signi�cance) or the objective value of the tree in and of itself (AWES, 2021). Alternatively, urban trees can be evaluated in situ, built on the monetary value they provide based on their ecological services (e.g., stormwater management, carbon sequestration), or appraised for the cost of replacing them based on their size, health, and species.  Highlights Measuring economic value The bene�ts and ecological services of urban forests can be assessed and quanti�ed. Tree appraisal methods The value of individual urban trees can be determined using specialized assessment techniques. Legal and practical significance Understanding tree value is crucial for tree replacement, legal disputes, urban planning, infrastructure development, and insurance claims. Beyond monetary value Urban trees provide additional bene�ts, such as carbon storage, air quality improvement, and urban heat reduction. Tools Available tools for economic evaluation and appraisal of urban trees. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 57 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 58 Tree Appraisal In addition to measuring, assessing, and quantifying urban forest bene�ts and ecological services, tree appraisal is conducted for numerous compelling reasons, including o�cial and legal valuations of urban trees. Several appraisal methods have been developed and implemented to estimate the monetary value of trees (Watson, 2002). While tree appraisal results can vary between appraisal methods and appraisers (Watson, 2002), conducting tree appraisals remains an important way to convey the signi�cance and value of urban trees (Komen & Hodel, 2015; Purcell, n.d.). Several methods can be used for estimating tree replacement values, particularly when estimating the value of a tree for legal disputes, sales, urban planning, and infrastructure development needs, or insurance claims. Several tree appraisal methods are used across urban areas, and all of them assess the monetary value of trees based on several common variables: species characteristics, tree size, health condition, location, and contribution to the surrounding environment (Doick et al., 2018). For example, these methods are: the Trunk Formula Method (TFM), often used for large and irreplaceable trees; the replacement cost method, used for smaller and replaceable trees; the cost approach, used to evaluate lifetime maintenance and planting costs for trees; the market approach (comparable sales), to assess the value of a tree based on market prices of similar trees; the income approach, which focuses on economic bene�ts of trees such for example energy savings; the capital asset valuation which estimates a value that a tree contributes to property value; ecosystem service valuation which assigns tree value based on the environmental bene�ts it provides such example carbon sequestration and air quality improvement; and the CTLA Guide for Plant Appraisal, an ISA approach that combines multiple tree variables such as size, species, and condition into the valuation (Watson, 2002; Szaller et al., 2019; Doick et al., 2018).  A tree appraisal's purpose is usually guided by speci�c clients' needs and often considers handling unexpected losses, tort claims (civil claims for compensation for wrongful acts or injury), insurance claims, tax deductions, real estate assessments, or proactive planning. Once all relevant tree information is collected, the appraiser selects an appropriate appraisal method and delivers an objective valuation as a dollar �gure (Purcell, n.d.; Ponce-Donoso, Vallejos-Barra & Escobedo, 2017; CTLA, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 58 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 59 2020; Grande-Ortiz, Ayuga-Téllez & Contato-Carol, 2012). The Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers (CTLA) Guide for Plant Appraisal is one of the most commonly used tree valuation methods in Canada and the United States, and is considered an industry standard (Cullen, 2007; Komen and Hodel, 2015). The appraisal process requires collecting site-level information, including tree measurements and assessment, to obtain all measurable variables effectively. Tree species characteristics and size, tree condition, damage, scarring, location factors, and many more criteria determine the value of a tree. Valuing trees and landscape elements requires specialized training, expertise, and experience. Tree appraisal material and courses are available through organizations such as the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) and ISA Ontario. CTLA methods, endorsed by the ISA and local arborist organizations, are applicable for tree valuation in legal disputes, urban planning, environmental impact studies, and insurance claims. For example, the City of Ottawa, Edmonton, Guelph, and Mississauga use the CTLA approach to assess and evaluate the value of trees affected by construction and development projects (City of Guelph, 2019; City of Edmonton, 2024; AECOM, 2022).  Smaller municipalities may lack the resources needed for complete tree inventories; collaborating with consultants or universities can provide valuable support at the city level. Economic Value of Urban Forests – Benefits Provided Urban trees provide a myriad of ecological services that can be translated into economic value. For example, tree bene�ts include increased property values (Han et al., 2024), positive impacts on real estate consumer preference (Farr, 2017), reduction in energy costs by shading buildings and pavement, and lower ambient temperatures (McDonald et al., 2024). In 2014, a TD Economics Report found that urban forests in Halifax, Montreal, Vancouver, and Toronto had a combined value of $42 billion and provided $330 million per year in environmental bene�ts. Depending on the city, for each dollar spent on tree maintenance, about $1.88 to $12.70 was returned in various bene�ts (Alexander & DePratto, 2014). These values are likely to be lower estimates, as they do not include the value of tourism, recreation, or impact on property values, human health, and social wellbeing (Farr, 2017). Urban trees provide services akin to other urban infrastructure by reducing runoff and erosion, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 59 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 60 improving air quality, saving energy, and sequestering carbon, which increases over time as trees grow (Hotte et al., 2015; Farr, 2017).  Technology such as remote sensing (e.g., multispectral images and LIDAR) and geographic information systems (e.g., GIS and Google Maps), combined with ground- based sampling methods (e.g., plot and tree sampling, as well as data collected through citizen science), play a vital role in estimating the extent, structure, and composition of urban forests and their bene�ts (Hotte et al., 2015). These technologies facilitate the mapping of urban canopy extent and the collection of measurements of urban forests and woodlots in both large and small municipalities. This spatial and �eld information is then further used to support the ecological and economic values of trees and the services they provide.  For instance, �eld measurements, along with tools like i-Tree or other tree-relevant allometric formulas, can be employed to determine the carbon sequestration rates of urban forests. By utilizing �eld data alongside mapped tree canopy coverage, it becomes possible to estimate the amount of carbon dioxide sequestered from the atmosphere by the entire urban tree canopy, by individual trees, and by a unit (e.g., 1 ha) of the urban tree canopy. For example, a study conducted in Canada by Pasher et al. (2014) estimated that the average carbon sequestration capacity of urban tree canopies is 2.9 tonnes of CO per hectare per year. Benefits and Value of Urban Forests – Beyond Money Estimating the value of an urban forest can be done by appraising forest structural components such as canopy cover, species composition, and age. The many bene�ts of urban forests, such as carbon storage, carbon sequestration, air quality improvement, and the moderation of urban heat island effects (Han et al., 2024), also create value via co-bene�ts. It has been shown that some of these bene�ts result in co-bene�ts, such as decreased power usage during a heatwave (McDonald et al., 2024), and a negative correlation between urban tree canopy cover and mortality and morbidity rates during heat waves (McDonald et al., 2020). Aside from providing refuge during summer, proximity to urban forests is positively correlated with shorter hospital stays for patients recovering from surgeries and better health outcomes for pregnancies (Ulrich, 1984; Hotte et al., 2015). While more challenging to quantify, the 2 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 60 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 61 cultural, spiritual, visual, and sensory values of urban trees are often the aspects most highly valued by the general public. Resources CommunityViz. (n.d.). CommunityViz. https://communityviz.com/ Cullen, S. (2007). Putting a value on trees—CTLA guidance and methods. Arboricultural Journal, 30(1), 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2007.9747475 iTools. (n.d.). i-Tree Tools. https://www.itreetools.org/ SLBC Inc. & Green Analytics. (2024). Natural Capital Asset Management Plan. City of Aurora. https://www.aurora.ca/en/your-government/resources/Climate-Change/Final-Natural-Capital-Asset- Management-Plan-NCAMP .pdf  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). BENMAP – Environmental bene�ts mapping and analysis program. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/benmap City of Edmonton. (2023a). Natural Stand Valuation Guidelines. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/ DRAFT_NaturalStandValuationGuidelines.pdf    City of Edmonton. (2023b). Guidelines for Evaluation of Trees. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/ Guidelines_Evaluation_Trees_August2020.pdf Alexander, C., & DePratto, B. (2014). The value of urban forests in cities across Canada.TD Economics. https://economics.td.com/domains/economics.td.com/documents/reports/PDF%20modi�cation/ UrbanForestCanadianCities.pdf Alexander, C., & McDonald, D. (2014). Urban forests: the value of trees in the City of Toronto. TD Economics. https://economics.td.com/domains/economics.td.com/documents/reports/PDF%20modi�cation/ Urban%20Forests.pdf AECOM. (2022). Tree Conservation Report – 2625 She�eld Road, Ottawa, Ontario. Tools for Economic Evaluation & Appraisal  Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 61 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 62 https://webcast.ottawa.ca/plan/ All_Image%20Referencing_Site%20Plan%20Application_Image%20Reference_2022-10-17%20- %20Tree%20Conservation%20Report%20-%20D07-12-22-0149.PDF Agroforestry and Woodlot Extension Society (AWES). (2021). Determining the Value of Your Trees. https://www.awes-ab.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Value-of-Trees_Brochure_Final_digital- May-7.pdf b-Tree. (n.d.). Trees and their ecosystem services. https://b-tree.be/en/boombeheer/ecosysteemdiensten-bomen/ City of Edmonton. (2022). Guidelines for Evaluation of Trees. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/Guidelines_Evaluation_Trees.pdf City of Guelph. (2019). City Of Guelph Urban Forest Study Report. https://guelph.ca/wp-content/uploads/Urban-Forest-Study-Report.pdf  Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers (CTLA). (2020). Guide for Plant Appraisal (10 Ed. Rev.), 170 pp. International Society of Arboriculture. https://wwv.isa-arbor.com/store/product/4472/  Doick, K. J., Neilan, C., Jones, G., Allison, A., McDermott, I., Tipping, A., & Haw, R. (2018). CAVAT (Capital Asset Value for Amenity Trees): valuing amenity trees as public assets. Arboricultural Journal, 40(2), 67– 91. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071375.2018.1454077  Ewane, E. B., Bajaj, S., Velasquez-Camacho, L., Srinivasan, S., Maeng, J., Singla, A., . . . Mohan, M. (2023). In�uence of urban forests on residential property values: A systematic review of remote sensing-based studies. Heliyon, 9(10), e20408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20408  Farr, K. (2017). Research Brief – Evolving Urban Forest Concepts and Policies in Canada. 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Appraisal of Urban Trees Using Twelve Valuation Formulas and Two Appraiser Groups. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 43(2), 72-82. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2017.007  Purcell, L. (n.d.). Tree Appraisal and the Value of Trees. Purdue Extension. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/fnr/FNR-473-W.pdf Szaller, V., Buza, A., Divós, F., Divósne Ther, M. (2019). Tree Assessor: Valuation of trees. Tree Assessor. https://tree-assessor.dobrekadry.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/O4_Valuation-of-trees_S.pdf Ulrich, R. S. (1984). View through a window may in�uence recovery from surgery. Science, 224(4647), 417-419. doi:10.1126/science.6143402 Watson, G. (2002). Comparing formula methods of tree appraisal. Journal of Arboriculture, 28(1), 11-18. doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2002.002 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 63 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 64 Wolf, K. L., Lam, S. T., McKeen, J. K., Richardson, G. R. A., Bosch, M. van den, & Bardekjian, A. C. (2020). Urban trees and human health: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 1–30). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124371  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 64 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 65 Individual Tree and Woodlot Inventory, and the Tree Inspection Cycle The structure, distribution, and composition of an urban tree canopy greatly impact the bene�ts and services provided by urban green spaces in Canadian cities (Przewoźna et al., 2022). The foundation of an effective urban forest management program and the base information supporting ecological service estimates comes from a detailed tree inventory.  A tree inventory is a necessary urban forest management tool that provides information about trees, such as tree species, health, size, and location. There are diverse ways in which city authorities, professionals, and researchers can use tree inventory data. Inventory data can be used to identify and analyze tree species diversity and distribution, percentage of canopy cover, tree size/ class distribution, functional group distribution, tree health and growth trends, and more (Nielsen, Delshammer & Ostberg, 2014). Tree inventory data can also be used to support various efforts such as strategic forest management plans, cost-bene�t assessments of urban climate/pollution mitigation, creation of invasive species management plans, risk assessment, examination of social dimensions of urban forests, and much more (City of Toronto, 2013). Forest managers can also prioritize Highlights Importance of tree inventories Tree inventories are essential for urban forestry and provide valuable data for foresters, planners, policymakers, and homeowners. Inventory details Tree species, health, size, and location. Data collection methods Inventories and inspections can be done at various spatial scales, either manually or remotely. Citizen science and community involvement Volunteer-based inventories can be a cost-effective and socially bene�cial way to start or update a city's tree inventory. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 65 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 66 maintenance efforts and resources by knowing urban forest resources. As such, keeping an up-to-date inventory of urban trees, supplemented by routine tree inspection, is fundamental for effective urban forest management.   Sample-Based Inventory There are several different methods and scopes of tree inventory that a city can employ. The quickest and most minimal scope of inventory is a sample-based inventory, which contains information on a small subset of trees from a larger population. A sample with su�cient data enables urban foresters to extrapolate tree data across the city to represent an entire urban forest. This type of inventory is considered a cost-effective way to achieve a statistically valid representation of an urban forest when the scope of inventory and analysis does not require data on each tree for speci�c management applications (Sabatini, 2021). Similarly, partial tree inventories focus on certain areas of concern, such as speci�c tree species, land use categories, or geographic areas. This type of inventory is taken when dealing with a pest outbreak and species-speci�c pests and diseases, as with the Emerald Ash Borer. A partial inventory is also useful when assessing storm damage and when performing risk assessments (EFUF, 2018). Individual Tree Inventory When a more comprehensive analysis of urban trees is required to support tree management and daily maintenance, tree surveys/inventories at the level of individual trees may be conducted. Survey methods include direct inspection and measurement of individual trees to gather a complete record of species, age, size, health, location, and other qualities (Nielsen, Delshammer & Ostber, 2014; Morales- Gallegos et al., 2023). While this approach can be labour-intensive and time- consuming, it supports urban forest management and operations with the most thorough and accurate tree data. Individual tree inventories may be considered the most bene�cial inventory method in situations when analyzing tree species diversity and distribution, tree size/class distribution, and monetary evaluation of individual trees/species are required, such as for preparing tree planting prescriptions or creating a baseline inventory for further assessment (Urban Forest Analytics, 2024).  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 66 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 67 Tree Inspection A tree inspection cycle, coupled with an updated tree inventory, is integral for proper tree maintenance and hazard management. Effective tree monitoring enables the evaluation of urban forest resources and the development of short and long-term plans and maintenance, which can provide substantial cost savings while also mitigating safety and tree hazard issues.   Urban tree inspection, pruning, and removal are necessary components of urban forestry in Canada [see chapter: Tree Maintenance]. Up-to-date inspection of urban street tree condition and health, as well as recording previous and scheduled work, are the basis of effective street tree maintenance and management (City of Toronto, 2013). Regular inspection cycles are also important health and safety tools, where storm or construction tree damage, canopy dieback, limb damage, pest and disease presence, routine tree care and tree health decline can be assessed and managed in a timely manner to prevent hazards and risks to citizens (International Society of Arboriculture, n.d.).  Tree health indicators at the individual tree level such as trunk damage, crown dieback, vandalism, pest/disease presence and root damage require on-the-ground inspection (Morales-Gallegos et al., 2023), while street- or stand-level health indicators such as crown density, stand age/size, vegetation indices, edaphic (soil- related) factors and climatic/environmental stressors can be inspected and observed using satellite imagery, sample inventories, proxy indicators and models (Haq et al., 2023).  Aerial Urban Forest Inventory Conversely, when general tree data is required for large areas, many Canadian cities create tree inventories using aerial photography and GIS (Esri Canada & City of Guelph, n.d.). By employing satellite imagery and scanning tools, cities can conduct an inventory of tree cover types and general stand qualities without inspecting each individual tree [see chapter: GIS, Remote Sensing and Other Spatial Technologies]. This type of inventory can be bene�cial when considering the health and bene�ts of urban canopy cover, when assessing large areas where �eld surveys may be too Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 67 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 68 costly/time-intensive, and when information about individual trees is not necessary based on the scope of data application (Wood, Norton & Rowland, n.d.; Nielsen, Delshammer & Ostber, 2014). Community Science and Participation When conducting tree inventories, Canadian cities may employ citizens and non- pro�t organizations to participate in data collection. Recruiting volunteers to record general observations about tree health in their neighbourhoods, such as cavity decay, crown dieback, and trunk damage, is a valuable and cost-effective way to build and maintain tree health inventories without performing constant �eld surveys (Sabatini, 2021). In Canada, community-based stewardship programs such as Neighbourwoods™ (Kenney & Puric-Mladenovic, 1995) can help community groups and volunteers contribute to tree inventories, which help inform foresters and planners about the state of urban forests while also encouraging community involvement in urban forest stewardship. This program has explicitly been employed in several municipalities across Ontario and has potential for application across Canada and beyond. Additionally, Canadian urban tree inventory data can be added to national and international databases (e.g., CIF Open Urban Forests (2024), i-Tree (n.d.), Making Nature's City ToolKit (n.d.), etc.), which support concerted management and planning efforts.  It is important to recognize that many community involvement and volunteer-based outreach programs only reach a very targeted audience. There is often a lack of emphasis on place-based landscape design and engagement, which should vary based on the needs of individual neighbourhoods, communities, and municipalities (Eisenman et al., 2024). A place-based approach to community engagement in urban forestry requires understanding the issues, relationships, and needs of community members in any given place and speci�cally coordinating planning and resources to improve the quality of life for that community (Improvement Service UK, 2016). When place-based needs and goals are not well understood, the bene�ts of community involvement in urban forestry can be inequitably distributed (Kudryavtsev, Stedman & Krasny, 2012).   For a successful and equitable place-based outreach program, it is necessary to Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 68 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 69 allocate funds properly, meaningfully consult with target volunteers, co-develop participation opportunities with community members, and select performance outcomes based on place-based needs and goals (Eisenman et al., 2024). People from all communities should be equally able to engage in urban forestry, so public participation programs should re�ect their speci�c needs and goals [see chapter: Equity Considerations in Urban Forestry]. Natural Area/Woodlot Inventory Contents •   • Determine the type of inventory that should be used. • Selecting inventory methods, scale, and sampling plan. • Ongoing process of tracking changes in forest communities over time and space. Effective woodlot, natural parks, and area management rely on accurate knowledge of plant species composition, community structure, and how healthy its components are. Woodlot inventories differ from street tree inventories both in their spatial extent and in that a woodlot will have trees grown from naturally occurring seed, understory plants, wildlife, and other components not controlled by humans. Woodlot inventories can range from a basic timber cruise to a detailed inventory including soil, vegetation community, and wildlife inventory. The management goals for the woodlot generally determine the type of inventory chosen for a project. However, it is important to keep in mind that an inventory may bring to light new information (such as the presence of a species at risk or invasive plants) that might change management goals (Ma et al., 2021). The �rst step in understanding what is in a woodlot is a survey of available aerial images and maps. Depending on when and why they were developed, existing maps may already delineate the different stand types, roads, and water bodies in a woodlot. Aerial imagery can be used to create these maps and to judge the accuracy of outdated or broad-scale maps when newer information is not available (Gougeon, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 69 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 70 2014). Forest resource inventory maps are variably available across Canada and may be found through provincial open spatial data hubs [see chapter: National and Provincial Datasets]. LiDAR mapping may also be an option for stand delineation (Wang et al., 2004).  After getting a basic idea of what stands and other features are present in a woodlot, a sampling plan can be developed to build a basic inventory. The simplest form of woodlot inventory sampling is a timber cruise. In this form of inventory, sample locations (plots of variable size) are selected where surveyors record tree species, diameter, and growth form, which are then used to estimate the number of each tree species and the amount of basal area and merchantable timber per hectare. There are many guides to timber cruising provided by provincial governments and woodlot associations. However, this kind of inventory does not provide su�cient information on forest structure, composition, plant diversity, non-tree plant species, soil condition, forest community, and other aspects of woodlots, which determine their ecological integrity, combined health, and classi�cation. A more detailed inventory, often based on �xed area plots and which collects data on species besides trees as well as site characteristics, can better support tailored management for multiple purposes such as monitoring, habitat and species-at-risk protection, regeneration success, recreation, or carbon stock (Day and Puric-Mladenovic, 2012). One such inventory and monitoring program is the Vegetation Sampling Protocol (VSP) (Puric- Mladenovic, 2016), which can be adjusted to different spatial scales depending on landscape and management needs (Puric-Mladenovic & Baird, 2017). VSP is a sampling protocol that collects multipurpose, detailed information on trees and their size, but also a full species list, dead wood, and invasive species abundance (Sherman, 2015). VSP , as a strategic inventory, gathers information that is multi- functional and standardized (data collection and web-based portal for data entry), and gives a precise record of spatial extent and location, enabling �eld data to be transferred into diverse spatial formats and vegetation mapping products. It is also used for monitoring as it enables resampling and tracking changes in forest ecosystems over time and space. Detailed protocols such as this can be great resources when creating detailed inventories and �exible woodlot management plans. Resources Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 70 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 71 Bardekjian, A. (2004). A tree inventory management plan for the Toronto District School Board: FOR3008H Research Paper in Forest Conservation. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/A-TREE-INVENTORY-MANAGEMENT-PLAN.pdf BCIT Forestry. (2000). LSCR Big Tree Inventory. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/LSCR-Big-Tree-Inventory.pdf City of Charlottetown. (2015). Street and Park Tree Inventory. https://www.charlottetown.ca/environment___sustainability/urbanforestry/ street_and_park_tree_inventory  City of Edmonton. (2023). Natural Stand Valuation Guidelines. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/ DRAFT_NaturalStandValuationGuidelines.pdf     City of Toronto. (2013). Tree inventory practices and engaging volunteers on neighbourhood tree inventories. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2013/pe/bgrd/background�le-63864.pdf  Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.). Factsheet: Urban forestry technology and tools - Which tools are right for your local context? https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-urban-forestry-technology-and-tools  Neighbourwoods. (2018). Neighbourwoods Tree Inventory and Monitoring. http://neighbourwoods.org/NWinventory.html Puric-Mladenovic, D. (2016). Vegetation Sampling Protocol (VSP). Forests and Settled Urban Landscapes. http://forests-settled-urban-landscapes.org/VSP/  Sherman, K. (2015). Creating an Invasive Plant Management Strategy: A Framework for Ontario Municipalities. Ontario Invasive Plant Council. Peterborough, ON. https://www.ontarioinvasiveplants.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ PlantManagementStrategy_2015_March172015_D3_PRINTFINAL.pdf Charles T. Scott, C. T. & Gove, J. H. (2002). Forest inventory, Volume 2, pp 814–820 from Encyclopedia of Environmetrics. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester. https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/jrnl/2002/ne_2002_scott_001.pdf  International Society of Arboriculture. (n.d.). Managing Hazards and Risks. Retrieved from TreesAreGood https://www.treesaregood.org/treeowner/treehazards  Morgenroth, J. and Östberg, J. (2017). Measuring and monitoring urban trees and urban forests. Routledge Handbook of Urban Forestry, 1, 33-48. ISBN 9781315627106  Canadian Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 71 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 72 PlanIT Geo. (2021). Tips for Planning an Urban Tree Inventory and Getting the Most Out of It. https://planitgeo.com/library/tips-for-planning-an-urban-tree-inventory-and-getting-the-most-out-of-it/ Pokorny, J., O'Brien, J., Hauer, R., Johnson, G., Albers, J., Bedker, P ., and Mielke, M. (2003). Urban Tree Risk Management: A Community Guide to Program Design and Implementation. USDA Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, St. Paul. https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/11070 Canadian Institute of Forestry. (2024). Open Urban Forests – Establishing the First National View of Urban Forestry Geospatial Data in Canada. https://www.cif-ifc.org/get-engaged/open-urban-forests/  Eastern Ontario Model Forest. (1997). A True Picture: Taking Inventory of Your Woodlot. https://�les.elfsightcdn.com/02873a1a-8bd7-433b-8910-a4f80f9814b4/dbb9f7b5-0187-489b-a603- b933810be2e8.pdf  Green Municipal Fund. (2024). Factsheet: Urban forestry technology and tools. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-urban-forestry-technology-and-tools  Forests Settled Urban Landscapes. (2016). Vegetation Sampling Protocol (VSP). http://forests-settled-urban-landscapes.org/VSP/  i-Tree International Database. (n.d.). i-Tree International Database – About. https://database.itreetools.org  Making Nature's City. (n.d.). A science-based framework for building urban biodiversity: Overview.  https://www.makingnaturescity.org/overview/  Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations (Forest Analysis and Inventory Branch). (2018). Vegetation Resources Inventory – British Columbia Ground Sampling Procedures. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/natural-resource-stewardship/nr-laws-policy/risc/ vri_ground_sampling_procedures_2018.pdf  Province of British Columbia. (2024). Ground sample inventories. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/forest- inventory/ground-sample-inventories Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). (2016). Forest Vegetation Monitoring Protocol - Terrestrial Long-term Fixed Plot Monitoring Program (Regional Watershed Monitoring and Reporting). https://www.trca.ca/app/uploads/2016/02/L TMP_Forest-vegetation-monitoring-protocol.pdf  Day, A. D. and Puric-Mladenovic, D. (2012). Forest inventory and monitoring information to support diverse management needs in the Lake Simcoe watershed. The Forestry Chronicle, 88(02): 140-146. Tools and Inventory Protocols Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 72 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 73 https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc2012-030  Eisenman, T. S., Roman, L. A., Östberg, J., Campbell, L. K., & Svendsen, E. (2024). Beyond the Golden Shovel: recommendations for a successful urban tree planting initiative. Journal of the American Planning Association, 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2024.2330943  Esri Canada, City of Guelph. (n.d.). City of Guelph Imagery Viewer. Guelph GIS Maps. https://gismaps.guelph.ca/portal/apps/ImageryViewer/index.html? appid=6461bf4d90ec41fba1eb0731c79bc95b  European Forum on Urban Forestry. (2018). Abstracts – Increasing cities, decreasing green areas – challenge to urban green professionals. https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/fb678c_092c45856a1a48839ecf1820a68ed1ed.pdf Gougeon, F. A. (1995). A Crown-Following Approach to the Automatic Delineation of Individual Tree Crowns in High Spatial Resolution Aerial Images. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(3), 274–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/07038992.1995.10874622  Haq, S.M., Waheed, M., Khoja, A.A., Amjad, M.S., Bussmann, R.W., Ali, K. et al. (2023). Measuring forest health at stand level: A multi-indicator evaluation for use in adaptive management and policy. Ecological Indicators, 150 110225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110225  Improvement Service UK. (2016). Place-based Approaches to Joint Planning, Resourcing and Delivery: An overview of current practice in Scotland. https://www.improvementservice.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_�le/0016/10744/place-based-approaches- report.pdf Kudryavtsev, A., Stedman, R. C., & Krasny, M. E. (2012). Sense of place in environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 18(2), 229-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2011.609615  Ma, B., Hauer, R. J., Östberg, J., Koeser, A. K., Wei, H. and Xu, C. (2021). A global basis of urban tree inventories: What comes �rst the inventory or the program. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 60, 127087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127087.  Morales-Gallegos, L.M., Martínez-Trinidad, T., Hernández-de la Rosa, P ., Gómez-Guerrero, A., Alvarado- Rosales, D., Saavedra-Romero, L.d.L. (2023). Tree Health Condition in Urban Green Areas Assessed through Crown Indicators and Vegetation Indices. Forests14, 1673. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14081673   Nielsen, A., Ostberg, J., & Delshammar, T. (2014). Review of Urban Tree Inventory Methods Used to Collect Data at Single-Tree Level. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry 40, 96-111. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/286000702_Review_of_Urban_Tree_Inventory_Methods_Used_to_Collect_Data_at_Single- Tree_Level Przewoźna, P ., Mączka, K., Mielewczyk, M. et al. (2022). Ranking ecosystem services delivered by trees in Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 73 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 74 urban and rural areas. Ambio51, 2043–2057. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-022-01722-2 Puric-Mladenovic, D. and Baird, K. (2017). Natural areas monitoring in the City of Guelph: Emerald Ash Borer impact on ash populations in natural areas. Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. 76 pp. https://guelph.ca/wp-content/uploads/VSPGuelphReport_March3_2017.pdf Rouge National Urban Park. (2024). Park management plan - Rouge National Urban Park. Parks Canada. https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/on/rouge/info/gestion-management/gestion- management-2019#PartB  Tuhkanen, E.-M., Männistö, A., Terho, M., Raisio, J., Arrakoski, K., Mänttäri, M., Riikonen, A., Tanhuanpää, T., Linden, L., & Verkasalo, E. (2018). Using city tree inventory data as a tool of planning, management and economic valuation of ecosystem services provided by urban trees.  Abstracts: European forum on urban forestry 2018. https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/fb678c_092c45856a1a48839ecf1820a68ed1ed.pdf Urban Forests Analytics. (2024). Tree inventories. https://www.urbanforestanalytics.com/tree-inventories/ Wang, L., Gong, P ., and Biging, G. S. (2004). Individual Tree-Crown Delineation and Treetop Detection in High-Spatial-Resolution Aerial Imagery. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 3(7), 351-357. https://doi.org/10.14358/PERS.70.3.351  Wood, C.M., Norton, L.R., & Rowland, C.S. (2013). What are the costs and bene�ts of using aerial photography to survey habitats in 1km squares? Natural Environmental Resource Council – Open Research Archive. https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/511330/8/CS_AP_Report_Final170215_no_maps.pdf Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 74 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 75 GIS, Remote Sensing and Other Technologies Technologies like Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, other web- based spatial technologies, and relevant software are widely used to support urban forest management, conservation, and planning. They allow the mapping, cataloguing, inventory, and monitoring of urban forest characteristics from the scale of individual trees, woodlots, and urban green spaces to an entire urban tree canopy (Ward & Johnson, 2007). Besides mapping trees, they also allow mapping of the urban environment and environmental conditions where urban trees grow. There is a diversity of GIS and remote sensing technologies in use and development, and a diversity of spatial and remotely sensed urban forest-related data. Some of the technologies have been designed for use in urban forestry, and some have been developed in other professions and adopted by the urban forestry sector (Green Municipal Fund, n.d.). This chapter brie�y summarizes technologies used in urban forestry and provides a list of Canada's relevant examples. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)  Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have played a pivotal role in natural resources management, and thus urban forestry, for decades. Since the 1980s, particularly in 1990, with spatial technology and software development and growth, GIS has become a critical tool for urban forest management and decision-making. For example, GIS enables detailed tree and canopy mapping, analysis, and management of tree population data. GIS creates spatial tree inventories containing species, health, size, and more information. Such spatial tree data facilitates more effective Highlights Technologies GIS, remote sensing, LiDAR, and orthoimagery, and how they are used in urban forestry. Overview GIS and remote sensing in urban forestry. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 75 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 76 and adaptive urban forest management and monitoring, critical for informing tree planting strategies and sustainable and evidence-based urban development.  Additionally, GIS, combined with remote sensing, enables sampling of the entire urban area, supports timely urban forest monitoring, and detects urban forest decline and pest infestations, to name a few applications. Furthermore, by integrating urban forest spatial data with urban planning, GIS supports future urban forest planning and enhances urban forest conservation in the face of increased urban intensi�cation and development. Moreover, GIS facilitates using other spatial data (e.g. Digital Elevation Models, infrastructure mapping, and soil zones) to provide context about a proposed planting site, potentially protect trees and green areas, and other urban forestry projects (Kip, 2022). Numerous commercial and open-source GIS software exist and are utilized in urban forestry.  Commercial GIS programs like ESRI ArcGIS Pro are widely used across municipalities, governments, and larger NGOs. MapInfo Professional is another commercial software that has mapping and spatial analysis tools suitable for urban forest management and land use planning. In the open-source category, QGIS is certainly one of the most popular GIS platforms. It has a wide range of tools for mapping, geospatial analysis, and data visualization. GRASS GIS is an advanced open-source GIS, particularly for use with remotely sensed images. It has powerful analytical capabilities.  Each of these tools enables spatial database creation, data maintenance, mapmaking, analysis, and reporting. For example, they can be used to create and maintain databases of individual street trees, facilitate tree health risk and assessment, track tree removal and work planning, analyze and map woodland and urban forest characteristics, and more.  Municipalities, provincial governments, and some larger NGOs typically use Esri software to manage their data, conduct analyses, and share the information with the public. By taking advantage of web mapping, Canadian municipalities share street tree inventories with the public. For example, Vancouver, Ottawa, Charlottetown, Oakville, Winnipeg, and Montreal have their tree inventory data online. GIS in combination with web mapping also supports speci�c interactive web applications and other forms of knowledge sharing, reporting, and science communication that allow the public and other interest groups to view and understand forestry data Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 76 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 77 easily. Examples of interactive web applications include Nature Canada's 2022 report on tree equity and the associated Canadian Map of Adaptation Actions, the City of Toronto’s Tree Equity Map, and Calgary's urban forest management map. Mobile and web-based GIS tools and applications are also used to collect urban forest information and engage the public in data gathering and urban forest monitoring. These platforms enable citizens, researchers, and the broader public to contribute to the inventory, monitoring, and management of urban forests and their biodiversity. For example, iNaturalist has been used to track urban biodiversity and upload photos and locations of observed plants, wildlife, and insects. The Neighbourwoods© program has been using mobile GIS applications to support inventory and monitoring trees on private urban lands by engaging community groups and graduate students in data collection.  Remote Sensing Collecting data and sampling the entire urban forest through �eld surveys alone would be challenging and not economically feasible. Remote sensing is a method of collecting spatial data across entire study areas without direct contact with the observed objects, and it plays a crucial role in urban mapping, management, conservation, and planning. Remote sensing provides critical insight into urban forest extent, structure, composition, and dynamics by capturing broad-scale, consistent, and repeatable data. Remote sensing products include multiple spectral imagery of forestry, such as remote sensing, airborne sensing, drone imagery and LiDAR (Staley, 2022). The advantage of remote sensing is that it frequently enables sampling of the entire urban forest and provides high-resolution data with diverse derivatives and multiple applications. For example, high-resolution satellite imagery and LiDAR allow for precise urban tree canopy cover mapping across entire cities. Remote sensing technologies with hyperspectral and multispectral sensors help identify vegetation stress and even speci�c tree species. Remotely sensed images and their derivative tools also enable consistent monitoring that can help to detect the effects of environmental and climate changes, phenology change, and green space loss, and can even be used to evaluate the effectiveness of urban forestry programs (e.g., tree planting efforts). Through remote sensing technologies, urban Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 77 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 78 foresters can evaluate health, distribution, and changes in vegetation, as well as the impacts of urbanization. Besides providing information about urban forests and trees, satellite and airborne remote sensing platforms also enable monitoring of environmental factors such as temperature, urban heat island effects, pollution, and soil moisture.  Remotely Sensed Images Used in Urban Forestry Satellite-based remote sensing collects and analyzes data about Earth's surface and atmosphere using satellite sensors. It enables large-scale, consistent, and repeatable monitoring of various environmental and urban features (Wulder et al., 2024; Latifovic et al., 2015).Images from satellite-based remote sensing are free or commercial. Both free and commercial imagery play complementary roles, with free data offering broader accessibility and commercial data providing greater detail and precision for specialized applications. Free satellite imageries are openly accessible for public use and are widely used for research, education, and non-commercial purposes. While these datasets are free, they may have limitations in terms of spatial resolution. For example, Landsat Data has multispectral imagery with 30m resolution (15m panchromatic) and a temporal resolution of 16 days. Sentinel-2 (ESA) imagery is high-resolution imagery (10-60m resolution) with multispectral bands. Like Landsat, it is suitable for urban forestry and land cover classi�cation, and tree canopy analysis.MODIS (NASA) is imagery takendaily and has moderate-resolution imagery (250m-1km) applicable for broad- scale monitoring of vegetation, land cover, and global change, with limited application to urban forests.  Commercial imagery provides �ner spatial, temporal, and spectral resolution specialized data products, but they can be cost-prohibitive, especially for large-scale or long-term projects. Thereare many commercial satellite imageries based on purchase or subscription, like PlanetScope (Planet) high-resolution imagery, which is taken daily. Older imagery has a resolution of 5m, while images taken by newer satellites have a resolution of around 3m. These images do not have a panchromatic band. They have 4 multispectral bands (Blue, Green, Red, and Near-Infrared). GeoEye-1 has one panchromatic band with a resolution of 41cm and four Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 78 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 79 multispectral bands (Blue, Green, Red, and Near-Infrared) at a resolution of 1.65m. WorldView Series (Maxar) is high-resolution imagery up to 30cm and provides multispectral and high-resolution panchromatic images. The multispectral WorldView satellite images provide data in multiple spectral bands, which are useful for urban forestry. WorldView-2 imagery has 8 multispectral bands (coastal, blue, green, yellow, red, red edge, NIR1, NIR2) with a spatial resolution of 1.84m. Its panchromatic band has a resolution of 0.46m. WorldView-3 images (and WorldView-4 decommissioned in 2019) have 1.24m resolution for 8 standard multispectral bands, 8 shortwave infrared (SWIR) bands, and 0.31m resolution for a panchromatic band. Airborne remote sensing is used to capture high-resolution data about urban forests. Airborne remote sensing requires aircraft or drones equipped with multispectral, hyperspectral, or LiDAR sensors. Similar to airborne remote sensing, UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles or Drones) are equipped with multispectral cameras and LiDAR or sensors. This makes airborne and UAV remote sensing especially valuable for monitoring and mapping urban forests and green spaces, detecting changes in forest cover, and using their outputs to support urban forest management and plan for sustainable urban development.  LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) uses lasers to generate point clouds representing the real world as the lasers encounter obstacles such as buildings, tree branches, and vegetation cover. These point clouds can then be classi�ed by what they represent in order to generate models of the real world used in these analyses. These datasets are becoming more available to the general public as their use increases (Natural Resources Canada, 2023). LiDAR provides detailed 3D topography and 3D models of tree heights and canopy density. Once processed for practical uses, this data offers detailed spatial information for speci�c uses, such as canopy height models to support tree inventory risk assessment and forest structure assessment. LiDAR analysis of an area can be used to estimate the leaf area and crown density of individual trees or entire regions, creating more accurate canopy cover estimates as technology evolves (LidarBC, n.d.). LiDAR is also commonly used as a tool for forest inventory (Natural Resources Canada, 2024; Ontario Woodlot Association, n.d.), and there has been an exploration of LIDAR as a tool for �re risk classi�cation (Burns, 2012) and natural disaster impact assessment (Blackman & Yuan, 2020).  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 79 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 80 Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) are basic spectral bands used to visually view, assess, and map vegetation in urban areas. Near-infrared (NIR) bands are sensitive to vegetation health and can be used to distinguish tree canopy from other land uses. For example, shortwave infrared (SWIR) is useful in detecting moisture content in vegetation and providing insights into tree health and stress. Depending on the available spectral bands and imagery used, a combination of spectral bands is possible to derive various vegetation indices that provide information about the urban canopy. For example, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), widely used to assess vegetation density and health, is derived from NIR and red bands. Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI, as a variation of NDVI) might be more sensitive to mapping dense vegetation. The availability of near-infrared (NIR) and red- edge bands is particularly valuable for vegetation analysis, canopy mapping, and detecting tree health in urban forestry applications. For example, Leaf Area Index (LAI) can be estimated from NIR and �eld survey LAI to create urban forest LAI across a wider area (Ren et al., 2018; Le Saint et al., 2024) using Lidar data (Alonzo et al., 2015).  In addition, various airborne or satellite hyperspectral images can be used to map tree canopy health, detect vegetation stress, or classify vegetation. They can even identify species and leaf biochemical properties such as chlorophyll content, leaf area index (LAI), or water content. For example, AVIRIS is an airborne sensor with 224 spectral bands. HyMap has 126 spectral bands, and  SpecTIR offers hyperspectral data across hundreds of bands. The EO-1 satellite, Hyperion, has 220 spectral bands, while PRISMA, from the Italian Space Agency, delivers 239 bands that can be used to support and inform environmental monitoring and urban forestry management. While hyperspectral imagery has high spectral resolution and is complex, it creates a large volume of data, requiring specialized remote sensing software to manage data and extract meaningful urban forest information.  Aerial Orthoimagery Digital Orthophotography (Orthoimagery) is aerial or satellite imagery, typically RGB and geometrically corrected (orthorecti�ed) to remove distortions caused by terrain, camera angles, and lens distortion. It is commonly used to visually represent landscapes and as a base map in GIS. The advantage of orthoimages is that they are Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 80 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 81 publicly available and shared by provinces or municipalities, and they can have a pixel resolution of 16cm and an accuracy of 45cm, which allows for precise identi�cation of tree locations within urban environments and makes them suitable for mapping tree locations. These imagery-based maps are widely used in GIS applications. As high-resolution imagery, they are overlaid with vector or raster data to provide quick spatial context and verify spatial data accuracy. Imagery-based maps are image layers that display satellite or aerial photographs of the Earth's surface. For example, Esri has included a high-quality aerial imagery-based map that is part of Esri's Living Atlas of the World. Unlike Esri products, QGIS does not have a native-based map, but with adequate plugins, it can use Google Maps, Bing Maps, and other services as base maps. For example, though time-consuming for larger areas, digital orthophotography and base maps can be used to digitize tree canopy outlines for smaller areas (e.g. parcel). Tools and Technologies City of Calgary, Esri. (n.d.). Urban Forest Management – Interactive Map. https://maps.calgary.ca/TreeSchedule/  Evergreen. (n.d.). AI for the Resilient City – About the Project. https://www.evergreen.ca/impacts/ai-for-the-resilient-city/   Google Earth. (n.d.). Overview – The World's Most Detailed Globe. https://www.google.ca/earth/ HealthyPlan. (n.d.). HealthyPlan City – Explore Equity in Your City. https://healthyplan.city/en   Natural Resources Canada, (n.d.). Registry of Open Data on AWS. https://registry.opendata.aws/ QGIS Association. (n.d.). QGIS Geographic Information System – Open Access. http://www.qgis.org Spatial Data Tools/GIS Free/public domain technologies and GIS Paid/membership model technologies and GIS Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 81 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 82 ESRI. (2011). ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10.8 - Overview. Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute. https://www.esri.com/en-us/arcgis/products/arcgis-pro/overview  ESRI. (2023). ArcGIS Solutions – Introduction to Tree Management. https://doc.arcgis.com/en/arcgis-solutions/latest/reference/introduction-to-tree-management.htm Note: Valid license for Esri ArcGIS required. American Forests. (2024). Discover Tree Equity Score.  https://www.treeequityscore.org/ iNaturalist. (2024). A Community for Naturalists – How it Works. https://www.inaturalist.org/   i-Tree International Database. (n.d.). i-Tree International Database – About. https://database.itreetools.org/  Open Ottawa. (2024). Tree Inventory. https://open.ottawa.ca/datasets/tree-inventory/explore Open Tree Map. (2024). Flexible all-in-one urban tree inventory and ecosystem services calculations tool. https://opentreemap.github.io/   Texas A&M Forest Service. (2024). Trees Count Mobile App – Download. https://texasforestinfo.tamu.edu/MobileApps/TreesCount/ Quebio. (n.d.). Arbres publics de Montréal. https://quebio.ca/en/arbresmtl  International Society of Arboriculture. (2018). Basic Tree Risk Assessment Form. https://wwv.isa-arbor.com/education/onlineresources/basictreeriskassessmentform  Texas A&M Forest Service. (2024). Tree Risk Mobile App – Download. https://texasforestinfo.tamu.edu/MobileApps/TreeRisk/ Regent Instruments. (2023). Image Analysis for Plant Science - Products. https://www.regentinstruments.com/assets/products.html Tree-Related Tools Tree Inventory Tree Risk Assessment Dendrology tools Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 82 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 83 Perdue University. (n.d.). Purdue Plant Doctor. https://www.purdueplantdoctor.com/  Native Plant Trust. (n.d.). Go Botany Plant ID Tools. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/ Virginia Tech. (2024). Virginia Tech Tree ID – App Download. Retrieved from Google Play. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.pottssoftware.agps21&hl=en_CA  Glority LLC. (2024). PictureThis Plant ID app– Botanist in Your Pocket. https://www.picturethisai.com/  City of Vancouver. (2022). Orthophoto Imagery 2022 - dataset. https://opendata.vancouver.ca/explore/dataset/orthophoto-imagery-2022/information/  Government of British Columbia. (n.d.). Maps & Orthos. https://a100.gov.bc.ca/ext/mtec/public/products/mapsheet  McGill Libraries. (n.d.). CanImage – Data Download. https://www.mcgill.ca/library/�nd/maps/canimage  Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. (2023). Ontario Imagery Program. Geospatial Ontario https://geohub.lio.gov.on.ca/pages/ontario-imagery-program Resources Canada in a Changing Climate: Advancing our Knowledge for Action. (2024). Map of Adaptation Actions. https://changingclimate.ca/about-map-of-adaptation/  Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.). Factsheet: Urban forestry technology and tools. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-urban-forestry-technology-and-tools Healthy Plan City. (2024). Explore equity in your city – interactive map. https://healthyplan.city/en   Kip, J. (2022). Assessing Candidate Protected Areas using GIS Technology. Ontario Nature. https://ontarionature.org/candidate-protected-areas-gis-blog/  LidarBC. (2023). British Columbia is investing in better data. https://lidar.gov.bc.ca/  Plant and pest/disease identification Orthoimagery Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 83 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 84 Natural Resources Canada (NRCan). (2023). New LiDAR Point Clouds product: Canada as you've never seen it before! Retrieved from Government of Canada. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/science-and-data/science-and-research/geomatics/topographic- tools-and-data/whats-new/new-lidar-point-clouds-product-canada-youve-never-seen-it/24861  Natural Resources Canada (NRCan). (2024). Aerial LiDAR and forest inventory monitoring. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/forests/sustainable-forest-management/ measuring-and-reporting/remote-sensing-forestry/aerial-lidar-and-forest-inventory-monitoring/13425  Nature Canada. (2022). Canada's Urban Forests: Bringing the canopy to all (September 2022). https://naturecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Nature-Canada-Report-Tree-Equity.pdf  Ontario Woodlot Association. (n.d.). Private Forest Inventory Program. https://www.ontariowoodlot.com/Forest-Inventory-Program Standards Council of Canada. (2022). Urban Heat Island Mapping Workshop: What We Heard. https://scc-ccn.ca/system/ �les/2024-05/20221206_uhi_what_we_heard_report_�nal_en_2023-04-04.pdf American Forests. (2024). Tools, Research, Reports & Guides. https://www.americanforests.org/tools-research-reports-and-guides/  Portland Parks & Recreation Urban Forestry. (2024). Street Tree Inventory. https://pdx.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html? id=b4671f4591144530b1c590731923b182 Alonzo, M., Bookhagen, B., McFadden, J. P ., Sun, A. and Roberts, D. A. (2015). Mapping urban forest leaf area index with airborne lidar using penetration metrics and allometry. Remote Sensing of Environment, 162, 141-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.02.025.  Blackman, R., & Yuan, F. (2020). Detecting Long-Term Urban Forest Cover Change and Impacts of Natural Disasters Using High-Resolution Aerial Images and LiDAR Data. Remote Sensing, 12(11), 1820. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12111820 Burns, J. (2012). Applications of LIDAR in Wildlife Management: an opportunity in British Columbia. http://dx.doi.org/10.14288/1.0075533 Latifovic, R., Pouliot, D., and Olthof, I. (2009) North American Land Change System: Canadian Perspective. 30th Canadian Symposium on Remote Sensing, Lethbridge, Alberta. Retrieved from Government of Canada https://natural-resources.canada.ca/maps-tools-and-publications/satellite-imagery-elevation-data-and- Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 84 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 85 air-photos/characterization-and-monitoring-change-canadas-land-surface/9146 Le Saint, T., Nabucet, J., Hubert-Moy, L., & Adeline, K. (2024). Estimation of Urban Tree Chlorophyll Content and Leaf Area Index Using Sentinel-2 Images and 3D Radiative Transfer Model Inversion. Remote Sensing, 16(20), 3867. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16203867  Münzinger, M., Prechtel, N. and Behnisch, M. (2022). Mapping the urban forest in detail: From LiDAR point clouds to 3D tree models. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 74, 127637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127637   Nitoslawski, S. and Konijnendijk, C. C. (2022). The Emergence of Smart Urban Forestry: Challenges and Opportunities in the Digital Age. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 48(2), 45-48. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2022.004 Ren, Z., Du, Y., He, X. et al. Spatiotemporal pattern of urban forest leaf area index in response to rapid urbanization and urban greening. Journal of Forestry Research, 29, 785–796 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-017-0480-x  Staley, D. C. (2022). Modern Urban Forestry for Modern Cities: Technology Challenges and Opportunities for the Remote Sensing of Urban Forests. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry (AUF) 48(2), 147-163. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2022.012 Ward, K. T. and Johnson, G. R. (2001). Geospatial methods provide timely and comprehensive urban forest information. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 6(1), 15-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2006.11.002 Wulder, M., Hermosilla, T., White, J., Bater, C., Hobart, G. and Bronson, S. (2024). Development and implementation of a stand-level satellite-based forest inventory for Canada. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research. 97. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpad065  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 85 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 86 Datasets Federal, provincial, municipal governments, academic institutions, and non- government organizations produce, maintain, and distribute several urban forest and urban environment-related datasets covering all or part of Canada. Many of these available datasets are helpful for urban forestry practitioners as they are standardized and have long-term update plans, ensuring their availability in the future. Most of these datasets are available online, publicly accessible, or available through data-sharing agreements. National and provincial data are listed below, as well as some individual national datasets made available by non-governmental organizations. Federal and provincial datasets generally contain remote sensing and spatial data, geological and soil data, census data, and other large-scale data types.  Municipal datasets often include local landcover data, orthoimagery, and city-level spatial data. Many municipalities and cities across Canada develop and maintain open data portals speci�c to their geographic area. Some of these are: In Alberta, Edmonton, Calgary, Medicine Hat, Red Deer, and Grande Prairie. In British Columbia, the open data includes Vancouver, Kamloops, Langley, Nanaimo, North Vancouver, Prince George, Surrey, and the Regional District of North Okanagan. For Manitoba, there is open data for Winnipeg. In New Brunswick, for Fredericton. Ontario's open data municipalities include London, Ottawa, Toronto, Windsor, Niagara Falls, Highlights Urban forestry datasets Government and non-government organizations in Canada maintain open-access urban forest-related datasets. Types of data Remote sensing and spatial data, tree inventories, canopy data, geological and soil data, census data, land-cover data, large-scale and municipal datasets. Open data Publicly accessible online data. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 86 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 87 Mississauga, Burlington, York Region, Peel Region, Niagara Region, Guelph, Hamilton, City of Waterloo, and Waterloo Region. In Quebec, the cities are Montreal, Ville de Québec/Quebec City, and Sherbrooke. In Saskatchewan, open data is available for Regina and Saskatoon, New Brunswick for Fredericton, and Prince Edward Island for Charlottetown.  For further information about any other municipality, visit the municipal site to determine if an open data portal is maintained by the appropriate governing authority. Resources Government of Canada. (n.d.). Open Government Portal – Open Data. https://search.open.canada.ca/data/   Government of Canada. (n.d.). Open Government Portal – Open Maps. https://search.open.canada.ca/opendata/?page=1&sort=metadata_modi�ed%20desc&collection=fgp   Statistics Canada. (2024). Data products, 2021 census. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/index-eng.cfm   Canadian Institute of Forestry (CIF). (2024). CIF-IFC Urban Forestry Learning Hub – Interactive Map. https://dsny5wm08q4u8.cloudfront.net  National Forest Information System. (2024). National Terrestrial Ecosystem Monitoring System for Canada.  https://opendata.n�s.org/mapserver/n�s-change_eng.html  Urban Heat Island Toronto (UHI Toronto). (2020). Toronto Census Metropolitan Area – Land Surface Temperature. https://uhitoronto.z13.web.core.windows.net/  Canadian Open Datasets by Government National/Federal Canadian Datasets National Provincial Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 87 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 88 City of Edmonton. (n.d.). City of Edmonton Open Data Portal. https://data.edmonton.ca/      City of Calgary. (n.d.). City of Calgary Open Data Portal. https://data.calgary.ca/    City of Medicine Hat. (n.d.). City of Medicine Hat Open Data. https://www.odata.org/ecosystem/liveservices/City-of-Medicine-Hat-Open-Data-Portal/  City of Red Deer. (n.d.). City of Red Deer Open Data Catalogue. https://data.reddeer.ca/datasets   City of Grande Prairie. (n.d.). City of Grande Prairie Open Data. https://opendata.countygp.ab.ca/   Government of Alberta. (n.d.). Open Government Program – Open Data. https://open.alberta.ca/opendata   Government of Alberta. (n.d.). GeoDiscover Alberta. https://open.alberta.ca/interact/geodiscover-alberta  City of Kamloops. (n.d.). City of Kamloops Open Data Catalogue. https://mydata-kamloops.opendata.arcgis.com/       City of Nanaimo. (n.d.). City of Nanaimo Open Data Catalogue. https://www.nanaimo.ca/open-data-catalogue/       City of North Vancouver. (n.d.). City of North Vancouver Open Data. https://www.dnv.org/government-administration/open-data-geoweb     City of Prince George. (n.d.). City of Prince George Open Data Catalogue. https://data-cityofpg.opendata.arcgis.com/   City of Surrey. (n.d.). City of Surrey Open Data. https://www.surrey.ca/services-payments/online-services/open-data      City of Vancouver. (2024). Open Data Portal. https://opendata.vancouver.ca/pages/home/   Government of British Columbia. (2024). Geographic Data and Tools. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/data/geographic-data-services   Regional District of North Okanagan. (n.d.). RDNO Maps and Digital Data. https://www.rdno.ca/maps  Township Langley. (n.d.). Township of Langley Open Data. Alberta British Colombia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 88 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 89 https://www.tol.ca/en/connect/open-data.aspx  Government of Manitoba. (n.d.). Data MB – Open Data. https://geoportal.gov.mb.ca  City of Winnipeg. (2024). City of Winnipeg Open Data Portal. https://data.winnipeg.ca  Government of New Brunswick. (n.d.). Open Data New Brunswick. https://gnb.socrata.com City of Fredericton. (n.d.). City of Fredericton Open Data. https://data-fredericton.opendata.arcgis.com/ Government of Nova Scotia. (2024). Open Data Portal. https://data.novascotia.ca   Government of Northwest Territories. (n.d.). NWT Centre for Geomatics. https://www.geomatics.gov.nt.ca/en City of Halifax. (n.d.). Halifax Data, Mapping, and Analytics Hub – Open Data. https://data-hrm.hub.arcgis.com/pages/open-data-catalogue  Canada-Nunavut Geoscience O�ce. (2021). Home – Nunavut Geoscience. https://nunavutgeoscience.ca/en/  City of Burlington. (n.d.). City of Burlington Open Data. Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland & Labrador Northwest Territories Nova Scotia Nunavut Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 89 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 90 https://www.burlington.ca/en/council-and-city-administration/open-data.aspx  City of Guelph. (n.d.). City of Guelph Open Data. https://geodatahub-cityofguelph.opendata.arcgis.com/  City of Hamilton. (n.d.). City of Hamilton Open Data. https://open.hamilton.ca/       City of London. (n.d.). City of London Open Data. https://opendata.london.ca/  City of Mississauga. (n.d.). City of Mississauga Open Data. https://data.mississauga.ca/        City of Niagara Falls. (n.d.). City of Niagara Falls Open Data. https://niagarafalls.ca/services/open/default.aspx  City of Ottawa. (n.d.). City of Ottawa Open Data. https://open.ottawa.ca/  City of Toronto. (n.d.). City of Toronto Open Data Portal. https://open.toronto.ca/       City of Waterloo. (n.d.). City of Waterloo Open Data. https://data.waterloo.ca/  City of Windsor. (n.d.). City of Windsor Open Data Catalogue. https://opendata.citywindsor.ca/  Government of Ontario. (2024). Ontario GeoHub. https://geohub.lio.gov.on.ca   Niagara Region. (n.d.). Niagara Region Open Data. https://niagaraopendata.ca/  Region of Peel. (n.d.). Region of Peel Open Data. https://data.peelregion.ca/  Region of Waterloo. (n.d.). Region of Waterloo Open Data. https://www.regionofwaterloo.ca/en/regional-government/open-data.aspx     York Region. (n.d.). York Region Open Data. https://insights-york.opendata.arcgis.com/  City of Charlottetown. (n.d.). City of Charlottetown Open Data. https://www.charlottetown.ca/business___development/invest_here/data_and_information_hub Prince Edward Island Government. (2024). Prince Edward Island Open Data. https://data.princeedwardisland.ca Prince Edward Island Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 90 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 91 City of Sherbrooke. (n.d.). City of Sherbrooke Open Data. https://donneesouvertes-sherbrooke.opendata.arcgis.com/        City of Montreal. (n.d.). City of Montreal Open Data Portal. https://montreal.ca/en/articles/open-data-platform-easy-access-10641  Données Québec. (2024). Québec Open Data. https://www.donneesquebec.ca   Ville de Québec. (n.d.). Ville de Québec Open Data. https://www.ville.quebec.qc.ca/services/donnees-services-ouverts/index.aspx  City of Regina. (n.d.). City of Regina Open Data. https://open.regina.ca/  City of Saskatoon. (n.d.). Open Data – Explore Data Catalogue. https://data-citysaskatoon.opendata.arcgis.com  City of Saskatoon. (n.d.). City of Saskatoon Open Data. https://www.saskatoon.ca/services-residents/connect-your-city/open-data  Government of Saskatchewan. (n.d.). Saskatchewan GeoHub. https://geohub.saskatchewan.ca Government of Yukon. (2024). GeoYukon - Yukon digital map data viewer. https://open.yukon.ca/data/datasets/geoyukon-yukon-digital-map-data-viewer   National Centers for Environmental Information. (2024). Monthly Global Climate Report for Annual 2023. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/global/202313   European Space Agency (ESA). (2020). Worldwide Land Cover Mapping. https://esa-worldcover.org/en  Quebec Saskatchewan Yukon International Datasets Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 91 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 92 Urban Forest Management Planning Diverse urban forest management and tree maintenance practices play a vital role in keeping urban forests healthy, managing tree hazards, planting trees, and/or generally sustaining tree canopy in urban areas. However, these practices have often targeted public trees, focusing on street trees or speci�c management practices (e.g., pruning). Urban tree maintenance and management have often been implemented as reactive responses to natural disasters or invasive species impact rather than as proactive approaches. While the importance of urban forests was recognized in the 1960s, it took over 50 years to understand how this valuable natural resource should be managed in its entirety and more strategically.  Strategic urban forest management in Canada emerged in the early 2000s, based on the idea that the entire urban forest and all its components need to be strategically managed through a carefully planned process (Kenney, 2003; Kenney et al., 2011). Such strategic and effective urban forest management ensures that the diverse Highlights Strategic urban forest management For maintaining urban forest health, optimizing urban forest bene�ts, and proactive management. Urban forest management planning in Canadian cities Examples. Supporting strategies These plans can be strengthened through natural asset management, urban forest monitoring, and certi�cations. Natural Asset Management (NAM) Stock of natural resources. Sustainable Forestry Initiative Urban Forest Standards Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 92 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 93 bene�ts urban forests provide are maximized and sustained over time. As critical components of green infrastructure and urban land uses, urban forests and green spaces require careful planning and management that is adaptive and sustainable. Taking a proactive approach to urban forest management ensures that urban forests are not left unmanaged. It also ensures that an urban forest management plan addresses foreseen pressures and challenges such as urban development, genetic diversity of tree species, and tree age distribution. Additionally, it incorporates measures for unforeseen challenges that could occur due to pest outbreaks, invasive species impacts, or climate change.  The leading objectives of urban forest management are to optimize the tree canopy leaf area by planting and maintaining a genetically diverse and site-appropriate mix of trees and shrubs, which should be achieved cost-effectively while maximizing public bene�ts and minimizing risks to public safety. Urban forest management planning begins by assessing the existing state of urban forests using the most recent data. If tree inventories are not available, new management plans should include a tree inventory that surveys tree species, size, overall health, and value. Urban forest inventories are prerequisite for measuring urban forest bene�ts and developing comprehensive urban forest management plans, and also serve as a base for developing natural asset management plans (GIOC, 2016). While natural asset management ideas related to natural areas emerged in 2017, the concept has also been applied to urban forests overall. Recently, Urban Forest Certi�cation standards were developed to address the growing need for sustainable management of urban forests (SFI, 2024). All these approaches contribute to urban forest management and share many common objectives and components, namely tree inventories.  Strategic Urban Forest Management Planning in Canadian Cities  Urban forests and all their elements have been recognized as the backbone of green infrastructure in Canada, and as critical for connecting urban and rural green areas (GIOC, 2015; NRCan, Canadian Forest Service, 2022). Strategic management planning emphasizes the importance of managing all urban forest components and their associated biotic and abiotic elements across a wide range of land uses and areas, from large to small communities, as well as the areas between them. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 93 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 94 Moreover, the entire urban forest, including trees across a range of urban spaces such as streets, parks, cemeteries, arboretums, private properties, and natural forest fragments, is recognized by strategic management planning.  The importance of strategic urban forest management planning was introduced to Canada by Kenney et al (2011), but the �rst Urban Forest Master Plan was developed for Prince George in 2003 as a response to the impact of �re that devastated the area. Following the principles of strategic urban forest management planning, urban forest strategic management plans were developed by many municipalities, such as the Town of Oakville (2008), the City of Guelph (2008), Town of Ajax (2011), and Halifax and the City of Toronto (2013), to name a few. While the development of urban forest plans in Canada peaked from 2010-14 within more urbanized mixed- forest regions (Ordóñez Barona, 2024; Puric-Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2023b), new urban forest plans are still developing, while the early plans are being updated or prepared for renewal. Urban forest management plans or strategies that provide a long-term, strategic approach to protect, preserve, and enhance the municipal urban forest are typically approved by city councils. Canadian municipalities are among the global leaders in terms of urban forest management planning, with over 80 urban municipalities having urban forest management plans.  For example, based on the 2023 study (Puric-Mladenovic and Bardekjian, 2023b), 89 out of 800 (11%) of the examined municipalities had an urban forest management strategy and/or urban forest management plan. Since that time, there has been an increase to 118 (14.7%) municipalities with urban forest management plans or strategies. For example, Saskatoon recently released its Urban Forest Management Plan 2022-2031, which emphasizes the importance of urban forest sustainability (City of Saskatoon, 2022); the City of Saanich (2024) followed close behind with a 10-year urban forest strategy published in 2024. These urban forest management plans, though all aimed at maintaining and maximizing urban forest canopy and tree bene�ts, differ based on how they approach implementation, tree maintenance, increasing canopy coverage, diversifying species, or involving the community (Kenney et al., 2011; Ordóñez & Duinker, 2013). Urban forest management plans are also crucial for maximizing ecological services and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 94 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 95 resilience by guiding the long-term management of a healthy, biodiverse, resilient urban forest. Not all of these plans are created equally; some are detailed plans with set goals and timelines, while some are more like strategies than plans. For example, the context of some plans is more like an outline of the importance of urban forests rather than a management plan. However, they are still valuable for setting the stage for developing a Strategic Urban Forest Management Plan (SUFMP), which is a long- term plan (typically 20 or 25 years) with a detailed roadmap of how to achieve the set long-term vision and goals. SUFMPs are based on measurable objectives that allow plans to move strategically from a baseline condition to a desired set target while prioritizing implementation and monitoring the implementation and success of the plan. These plans are based on understanding the existing state of the urban forest and then setting measurable objectives, criteria, and indicators, which are all crucial to developing an actionable management plan. Strategic urban forest management planning objectives, depending on the region, type of urban area, and state of the urban forest, can include increasing tree canopy cover, enhancing the longevity and health of urban forests, diversifying species, or fostering engagement from the community. Other common goals in SUFMP for urban forests across Canada include expanding species diversity, improving tree health, managing invasive species, increasing resilience against climate change and natural disasters, and improving canopy cover equity.   SUFMP objectives are achieved through detailed operational plans, which might include reaching speci�c canopy cover percentage targets, plans for invasive species removal, followed by native species plantings, community stewardship initiatives, or hazard tree removals, to name a few (Kenney et al., 2011; Ordóñez & Duinker, 2013). For example, the urban forest plan for the City of Calgary aims to raise canopy cover to 16% by 2060, protect current forests, and engage the community in forestry projects (City of Calgary, n.d.), while the plan for the City of Toronto aims to achieve 40% canopy cover by 2050 (City of Toronto, 2023). Strategic goals in SUFMP are aimed to be achieved through speci�c operational plans that are typically at 4-5 year intervals. Furthermore, 4-5 year operational plans are implemented through Annual Operating Plans (AOPs). AOPs involve day-to-day decisions on things like planting, pruning, and felling trees, controlling pests and diseases, and ensuring optimal water Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 95 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 96 and soil conditions. Annual operational planning also involves developing a budget, delegating roles and responsibilities, and establishing metrics to monitor progress. As an illustration, a strategic urban forest plan for the City of Calgary involves operational initiatives of caring for existing trees, planting 3,500 new trees each year, and prioritizing public safety and legal safeguards to protect new and existing trees through bylaws (City of Calgary, n.d.).  Natural Asset Management   Natural Asset Management (NAM) is an emerging approach to urban forestry in Canada where natural features are viewed as any other municipal asset or gray infrastructure that provides essential services. In this context, urban forests, as a natural asset, are placed into formal municipal asset management frameworks and plans. Several Canadian municipalities have implemented NAM strategies to enhance urban forest management; the Town of Gibsons, BC, was the �rst to implement NAM and recognize aquifers, forests, and wetlands as green infrastructures that need management. A monetary value was assigned to these natural systems, which enabled them to be incorporated into the town’s asset management plans and ensure their management and sustainable use (Town of Gibsons, 2018). Another example is the City of Edmonton, which developed an Urban Forest Asset Management Plan that focuses on the characteristics and conditions of publicly managed urban forest assets (City of Edmonton, 2021). It also provides a framework for achieving desired service levels at optimal life cycle costs. The City of Saskatoon also recently completed an inventory of its natural assets (wetlands, a portion of the South Saskatchewan River, grasslands, forest/shrublands) and completed their evaluation to support their own NAM (City of Saskatoon, 2020).   Urban Forest Certification Forest sustainability and good management certi�cations have existed in Canada for managed forests and woodlots since 1995. Recently, one of the leading forest certi�cation programs, the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), developed a certi�cation standard for the sustainability of urban forests. The SFI certi�cation standards for urban forests are grouped into 16 different objectives aimed at continual improvement of urban forestry programs. The 16 core objectives are: Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 96 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 97 fostering community, people, and Indigenous participation; enhancing human health and well-being; conserving biodiversity; stewarding natural resources such as air, water, and soil; promoting tree health and vitality; protecting special sites, including natural areas; implementing climate-smart management; advancing urban forest planning; ensuring effective management and care of urban forests; preparing for and responding to disasters; building capacity; utilizing urban wood resources; strengthening communications; supporting science, research, and technology; adhering to legal and regulatory standards, including Indigenous rights, and maintaining transparent reporting (SFI, 2024). Achieving these objectives should be an end goal for any new SUFMP . Urban Forests Monitoring All urban forest management initiatives must be evaluated for their performance using both pre-determined criteria and adaptive judgments of the effect of management strategies on urban forests. As such, consistent long-term monitoring is crucial to supporting and evaluating any urban forest management plan. Monitoring may take the form of updated street tree inventories, canopy cover equity mapping and analyses, policy impacts, woodlands and natural areas monitoring, vegetation monitoring, or public opinion surveys (among a myriad of other monitoring approaches) (Green Municipal Fund, n.d.). Provisions for continued monitoring should be included in all steps of management plans. Resources Green Infrastructure Ontario Coalition (GIOC). (2016). Urban Forests & Asset Management Planning — A Primer. https://greeninfrastructureontario.org/app/uploads/2016/06/UF-Toolkit-Part-2-Asset-Management- Primer-Final.pdf  Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.). 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Plan directeur de foresterie urbaine de la Ville de Rosemère : Portrait, diagnostics et stratégie de plantation. 76 p. https://www.ville.rosemere.qc.ca/download.php?�lename=RAPPORT_FINAL_PHASE_1_- _PLAN_DE_FORESTERIE_-_HABITAT.pdf Ville de Drummondville. (2022). Politique de L’Arbre: Plan D’action En Foresterie Urbaine. https://www.drummondville.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/VIDR_Plan-action_Politique- Arbre_05_WEB-medium.pdf  Ville de Gatineau. (2023). Plan de foresterie urbaine (PFU) 2023-2030. https://www.gatineau.ca/docs/guichet_municipal/arbres/plan_foresterie_urbaine.fr-CA.pdf Ville de Laval. (2020). Plan de foresterie urbaine. https://www.laval.ca/Documents/Pages/Fr/citoyens/environnement-recyclage-et-collectes/trame- verte-bleue-plan-foresterie-urbaine.pdf  Ville de Lévis. (2012). Des Arbres pour Demain – Politique de foresterie urbaine. https://www.ville.levis.qc.ca/�leadmin/Documents_PDF/politique-foresterie_web_opt.pdf  Ville de Montréal. (2009). Plan de foresterie urbaine de St. Laurent. https://ville.montreal.qc.ca/pls/portal/docs/page/arrond_sla_fr/media/documents/ plan_foresterie_urb2009.pdf  Ville de Montréal. (2020).  Foresterie Urbaine & Équité Environnementale: Recommander Pour Outiller Les Professionnels De L’aménagement Du Territoire A�n De Rendre La Ville De Montréal Plus Résiliente. https://effa.umontreal.ca/2020/uploads/projets/URB_21_doc_0_6611590542723.pdf  Ville de Mont-Tremblant. (2024). Plan D’action En Foresterie Urbaine: 2025-2030. https://www.villedemont-tremblant.qc.ca/public_upload/�les/ville/plans-politiques/ Foresterie2024VF.pdf?v=33641  Ville de Pointe-Claire. (2020). Urban Forestry Policy. https://www.pointe-claire.ca/content/uploads/2020/01/19-0742_pc_politique_foresterie_en.pdf Ville de Repentigny. (2021). Politique de Foresterie Urbaine et de Biodiversité. https://repentigny.ca/sites/default/�les/2021-04/ville_repentigny_politique-foresterie-urbaine- biodiversite_2016-05.pdf Ville de Saint-Eustache. (2022). Politique De Foresterie Urbaine. https://www.saint-eustache.ca/storage/app/media/ville/vie-democratique/politiques-et-codes- dethique/vse-politique-foresterie-urbaine.pdf  Ville de Québec. (2015). Place aux arbres: Vision de l’arbre 2015-2025. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 102 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 103 https://www.ville.quebec.qc.ca/apropos/plani�cation-orientations/environnement/milieuxnaturels/ docs/vision_arbre_2015_2025.pdf  Ville de Québec. (2010). Plan Directeur des Milieux Naturels et de la Forêt Urbaine – Tome 2: La Forêt Urbaine. https://www.ville.quebec.qc.ca/citoyens/propriete/arbres/docs/plan_directeur_foret_urbaine.pdf City of Prince Albert. (2018). Forestry Management Plan 2018-2038. https://www.citypa.ca/en/parks-recreation-and-culture/resources/Documents/Forestry-Management- Plan.pdf  City of Regina. (2000). The Regina Urban Forest Management Strategy. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/THE-REGINA-URBAN-FOREST.pdf  City of Saskatoon. (2021). Urban Forest Management Plan. https://www.saskatoon.ca/sites/default/�les/urban_forest_management_plan_0.pdf City of Saskatoon. (2022). Pathway to a Sustainable Urban Forest - Implementation of the Urban Forest Management Plan 2022-2031. https://www.saskatoon.ca/sites/default/�les/ Pathway%20to%20a%20Sustainable%20Urban%20Forest%20- %20Implementation%20of%20the%20Urban%20Forest%20Management%20Plan%202022-2031_3.pdf  City of Warman. (2018). Environmental Master Plan. https://warman.ca/DocumentCenter/View/2210/EMP-Final-Plan  City of Whitehorse. (2021). Urban Forest Strategy 2021-2031: Implementation and action plan. https://www.whitehorse.vic.gov.au/sites/whitehorse.vic.gov.au/�les/assets/documents/Whitehorse- Urban-Forest-Strategy-Action-Plan-2021-2031.pdf  Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). (2024). SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Standard. https://forests.org/wp-content/uploads/SFIUrbanCommunityForestStandard.pdf  Urban Forest Management Plan (UFMP). (n.d.). UFMP Toolkit. https://ufmptoolkit.net/  USDA Forest Service. (2006). Urban Forestry Manual. https://urbanforestrysouth.org/resources/library/ttresources/uf-manual-complete/  USDA Forest Service. (2022). Hazard Tree Identi�cation and Mitigation. Saskatchewan Yukon Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 103 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 104 https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd1006739.pdf  USDA Forest Service. (n.d.). A Guide: Developing a Street and Park Tree Management Plan. https://www.umass.edu/urbantree/mgtplanguide.pdf   USDA Forest Service. (n.d.). Management Tools. https://www.fs.usda.gov/forestmanagement/tools.shtml  USDA Forest Service. (n.d.). Urban Tree Risk Management: A Community Guide to Program Design and Implementation. https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/11070  Vibrant Cities Lab, USDA Forest Service, American Forests. (n.d.). Step 7 – Planning: Best Practices in Urban Forestry. Vibrant Cities Lab. https://vibrantcitieslab.com/toolkit/plan-the-total-program/  Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. (n.d.). A Technical Guide to Developing Urban Forest Strategic Plans & Urban Forest Management Plans. https://dnr.wisconsin.gov/sites/default/�les/topic/UrbanForests/UFPlanningGuide.pdf  City of Saskatoon. (2020). City of Saskatoon Natural Capital Asset Valuation Pilot Project. https://www.saskatoon.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/ncav-report-�nal.pdf  District of Saanich. (2024). Toward natural asset management in the District of Saanich, British Columbia. https://www.saanich.ca/assets/Local~Government/Documents/Engineering/AM_DoS- June2024_NAM-Inventory-report-NAI.pdf Green Infrastructure Ontario Coalition. (2015). Ontario's urban forests: Call to action. https://greeninfrastructureontario.org/app/uploads/2016/06/ GIO_Urban_Forest_Call_to_Action_Sept15Print.pdf  Kenney, W. A. (2003). A Strategy for Canada's Urban Forests. The Forestry Chronicle, 79(4), 785-789. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc79785-4  Kenney, W. A., van Wassenaer, P . J. E., & Satel, A. L. (2011). Criteria and Indicators for Strategic Urban Forest Planning and Management. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 37(3), 108-117. https://www.fufc.org/soap/kenney_criteria_and_indicators2011.pdf Miller, R. W., Hauser, R. J., & Werner, L. P . (2015). Urban Forestry: Planning and Managing Urban Greenspaces (3 ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.  Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), Canadian Forest Service. (2022). Think tank on a pan-Canadian strategy on urban forests: Synopsis of discussion. https://www.csla-aapc.ca/sites/csla-aapc.ca/�les/CFS-Urban_Forest_summary_EN%20_small.pdf  Ordóñez Barona, C. & Duinker, P . N. (2013). An analysis of urban forest management plans in Canada: Implications for urban forest management. Landscape and Urban Planning, 116, 36-47. Further Readings rd Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 104 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 105 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.04.007 Ordóñez Barona, C., Jain, A., Heppner, M., St Denis, A., Boyer, D., J., Lane, C., Edwards, Duinker, P . and Conway, T. (2024). Gaps in the implementation of urban forest management plans across Canadian cities. Landscape and Urban Planning, 251, 105168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2024.105168. Ordóñez Barona, C., St Denis, A., Jung, J., Bassett, C. G., Delagrange, S., Duinker, P ., and Conway. T. (2024). A content analysis of urban forest management plans in Canada: Changes in social-ecological objectives over time. Landscape and Urban Planning, 251, 105154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2024.105154.  Town of Gibsons. (2018). Advancing Municipal Natural Asset Management: The Town of Gibsons’ experience in �nancial planning & reporting. https://gibsons.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/GibsonsFinancialPlanningReportJan2018-PRINT.pdf  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 105 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 106 Tree Maintenance Tree maintenance is crucial for ensuring the health and longevity of urban trees, which can directly support the sustainability of urban forests in Canadian municipalities. Depending on the geographic region, environmental conditions, tree age, and species, tree care can include a variety of practices. These include tree pruning, watering, mulching, fertilizing, cabling, bracing, and identifying and removing hazard trees. These practices not only enhance tree vitality but also help mitigate the stresses that urban trees face due to environmental stressors like drought, pests and pathogens, nutrient de�ciencies, invasive species, and general damage due to physical stresses like weather or construction activities. Maintenance Practices Investment in the maintenance of newly planted and young trees pays off later by having healthy trees and reducing the cost of their management. Some of the most common maintenance practices used for young trees are watering, mulching, pruning to shape the tree for a strong structure, protecting the base of a tree and trunk from mechanical damage, inspecting for pests or diseases, and soil improvement like fertilization. Some of the most common practices to maintain older trees are regular pruning, protection of the root system from soil compaction, Highlights Maintenance practices Ensuring the health and safety of trees and the people around them. Tree maintenance practices Pruning, watering, mulching, hazard removal. Guidelines Bylaws and handbooks for homeowners and practitioners. Invasive insects and diseases Monitoring and treatment. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 106 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 107 supplemental watering during drought conditions, and careful fertilization, which can enhance tree longevity and vitality (ISA, 2021a). Tree pruning is one of the most common maintenance practices used to support the health, structure, and safety of urban managed trees. Pruning practices include structural pruning of young trees, removal of dead, diseased, or damaged branches, crown thinning, crown raising, pollarding, or in some cases, crown reduction to prevent tree con�icts with structure or utility lines. It is best to time pruning during the dormant season and avoid techniques like topping, which can harm the tree (see chapter: Hydro Lines and Corridors). Cabling and bracing are structural support techniques used to stabilize trees with weak or multiple trunks, large limbs, or those subject to strong winds (Mayne, 1975; Vandergriff & Clatterbuck, 2005). These methods are particularly useful in urban settings where tree failure can pose signi�cant risks to public safety and infrastructure (Purcell, 2017). In urban growing spaces where natural water sources may be limited or inconsistent, regular and deep watering is essential for establishing young trees and the development of their root systems in the �rst few years (2 to 5 years). This is particularly relevant during drought periods, which are becoming more frequent due to climate change, and for newly planted trees, which are particularly at risk of drying out (Steil, 2022; Zuzek, 2018; UMC, 2023). Mulching complements watering by conserving soil moisture, reducing weed competition, protecting trees from mechanical damage by mowers and trimmers, but also improving root development (Sun et al., 2023; Magditsch, 2021; Qu et al., 2019). Mulching also helps mitigate soil compaction, a common issue in urban environments that can impede root growth and water in�ltration. Older trees might also bene�t from mulching, which helps conserve moisture and improve soil health (ISA, 2021b). Fertilizing urban trees is a targeted approach to addressing nutrient de�ciencies often found in city soils. However, it is important to apply fertilizers judiciously, as Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 107 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 108 over-fertilization can lead to water pollution and tree health issues (Appleton & Kauffman, 2021; Maine Forest Service, 2000; Bellis, 2023). In Canada, guidelines for urban tree fertilization emphasize soil testing and the use of slow-release fertilizers that match the speci�c needs of the tree species and site conditions (CFIA, 2024). Identi�cation and removal of hazard trees are critical for urban forest management practice. Hazard-rating systems, which assess the likelihood of tree failure and the potential impact on people or property, are employed by many Canadian municipalities to prioritize tree maintenance efforts (TRCA, 2006). By assessing key hazard identi�ers such as limb damage, wood decay, and cankers, as well as situational conditions such as frequent use areas, proximity to infrastructure, and tree species failure potential, a decision can be made about the size of the hazard and the urgency with which action, such as pruning or tree removal, should be taken against the hazard. Taking a proactive approach in hazard tree management helps manage risks and allocate resources effectively (Gurney & Ward, n.d.; Pokorny et al., 2003; ISA, n.d.). In addition to traditional maintenance practices, invasive insects and disease management is a growing concern in global and Canadian urban forestry (Sweeney et al., 2019). The spread of pests like the Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) has led to signi�cant maintenance efforts to retain some trees and reduce tree loss, requiring municipalities to implement extensive monitoring, treatment, and removal programs. The City of Montreal, for example, has removed thousands of ash trees (genus Fraxinus) to manage this invasive pest. Tree Maintenance and Relevant Guidelines  Canadian municipalities follow national and provincial guidelines for urban tree maintenance, often supplemented by local bylaws and urban forest management plans. These frameworks provide a structured approach to tree care, emphasizing sustainable practices, climate resilience, and community involvement. For instance, the Canadian Urban Forest Strategy (CUFS) promotes best practices in urban forestry, including tree maintenance, and recommends that municipalities integrate urban forest management into broader city planning initiatives (Tree Canada, 2018). Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 108 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 109 At the provincial level, organizations like the Ontario Urban Forest Council, the British Columbia Urban Forest Network, and the Manitoba Urban Forest Council offer resources and guidance on urban tree care, while municipalities often have their own arboriculture standards and maintenance protocols. These include regular inspections, pruning cycles, and emergency response plans for extreme weather events. Tree Maintenance and Human Resources The effectiveness of tree maintenance programs depends on the availability of skilled professionals, including arborists, urban foresters, and municipal staff trained in tree care and management (Trees Are Good, n.d.). Continuous education and training are vital to ensure that the latest techniques and knowledge are applied in the �eld. In Canada, certi�cation programs such as those offered by the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) and other regional bodies are widely recognized and help maintain high standards in urban tree care. Moreover, municipalities often collaborate with community groups and volunteers to support tree maintenance efforts, particularly in the context of tree-planting initiatives and public awareness campaigns. Canadian municipalities can effectively maintain and enhance their urban forests by engaging the broader public in tree care and maintenance, invasive species monitoring, and tree monitoring, contributing to healthier, more livable cities. For example, educating the public on how to prune and maintain their private trees contributes to urban forest health and the enhancement of tree canopy (Johnson et al., 2008; IUFC, n.d.). These partnerships are crucial in fostering a shared sense of responsibility for the urban forest and ensuring its more sustainable maintenance. Resources Brandt, J.P . (1994). Pruning trees and shrubs (lea�et) Natural Resources Canada. Canadian Forest Service, Northwest Region, Northern Forestry Centre, Edmonton, Alberta. Forestry Lea�et 27. Tree Maintenance Resources Tree Pruning Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 109 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 110 https://ostrnrcan-dostrncan.canada.ca/handle/1845/235955    City of Toronto. (2023). Tree Pruning Guidelines. https://www.toronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/9748-tree-pruning-guidelines.pdf  Inland Urban Forest Council (IUFC). (n.d.). A Practical Guide to the Proper Pruning of Trees and Shrubs. https://www.ontarioca.gov/sites/default/�les/Ontario-Files/Parks-Maintenance/ practical_pruning_guide-single_pgweb.pdf Bedker, P ., O’Brien, J., & Mielke, M. (1995). How to Prune Trees. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. https://extapps.dec.ny.gov/docs/lands_forests_pdf/prunetree.pdf Purcell, L. (2015). Tree Pruning Essentials. Purdue Extension. https://extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/FNR/FNR-506-W.pdf  Trees Are Good. (n.d.). Pruning Trees [webpage]. International Society of Arboriculture. https://www.treesaregood.org/treeowner/pruningyourtrees  European Arboriculture Standards. (2022). Tree Cabling/Bracing Standard. https://instytut-drzewa.pl/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Tree-Cabling_Bracing.pdf  Mayne, L. (1975). Cabling and Bracing. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 1(6) 101-106. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.1975.023  Purcell, L. (2017). Large Tree Cabling and Bracing. Purdue Extension. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/FNR/FNR-550-W.pdf  Vandergiff, D. & Clatterbuck, W. (2005). Cabling, Bracing and Other Support Systems for Trees. University of Tennessee. https://utia.tennessee.edu/publications/wp-content/uploads/sites/269/2023/10/SP659.pdf  University of Maryland (UMD). (2023). Watering Trees and Shrubs. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/watering-trees-and-shrubs/  Zuzek, K. (2018). Watering newly planted trees and shrubs. University of Minnesota. https://extension.umn.edu/planting-and-growing-guides/watering-newly-planted-trees-and-shrubs International Society of Arboriculture (ISA). (2021b). Proper Mulching Techniques – Consumer Brochure. Trees Are Good. https://www.treesaregood.org/Portals/0/TreesAreGood_Proper%20Mulch%20Tech_0321.pdf Cabling and Bracing Watering Mulching Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 110 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 111 Appleton, B. & Kauffman, K. (2021). Fertilizing Landscape Trees and Shrubs. https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/content/dam/pubs_ext_vt_edu/430/430-018/430-018_pdf.pdf Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2024). Fertilizers. Government of Canada. https://inspection.canada.ca/en/plant-health/fertilizers Maine Forest Service. (2000). Fertilizing Urban Trees. https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mfs/forest_health/documents/fertilizing_urban_trees.pdf Pokorny, J., O'Brien, J., Hauer, R., Johnson, G., Albers, J., Bedker, P ., and Mielke, M. (2003). Urban Tree Risk Management: A Community Guide to Program Design and Implementation. USDA Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, St. Paul. https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/na/NA-TP-03-03.pdf  Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). (2006). Operational Procedures for Managing Hazard Trees. Tree Canada. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/OPERATIONAL-PROCEDURES-FOR-MANAGING- HAZARD-TREES.pdf  Trees Are Good. (n.d.a). Managing Hazards and Risks [webpage]. International Society of Arboriculture. https://www.treesaregood.org/treeowner/treehazards Gulick, J. (2014). Planning for Urban Forest Resilience: Managing Invasive Pests and Diseases. American Planning Association. https://www.treesintrouble.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/PAS-Memo-March-April-2014_cr.pdf  International Society of Arboriculture (ISA). (2021c). Insect and Disease Problems – Consumer Brochure. Trees Are Good. https://www.treesaregood.org/Portals/0/TreesAreGood_Insect%20Disease%20Problems_0721.pdf  Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario Commercial Arborist Association, City of Toronto. (2012). What you need to know about the management of the Emerald Ash Borer (EAB): Guidelines for hiring tree care services to manage urban trees. Eastern Ontario Model Forest. https://www.eomf.on.ca/media/k2/attachments/eab_management.pdf  City of Guelph. (2019). Tree Technical Manual. https://guelph.ca/wp-content/uploads/Tree-Technical-Manual.pdf  Fertilizing Hazard Trees Invasive Species Maintenance Guides Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 111 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 112 Government of Ontario. (n.d.). Maintaining Healthy Urban Trees. Landowner Resource Centre. http://www.lrconline.com/Extension_Notes_English/pdf/urbntrs.pdf Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.). Factsheet: Tree maintenance – How to care for trees after planting. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-tree-maintenance  International Society of Arboriculture (ISA). (2021a). Mature Tree Care – Consumer Brochure. Trees Are Good. https://www.treesaregood.org/Portals/0/TreesAreGood_Mature%20Tree%20Care_0721.pdf Johnson, J., Johnson, G., McDonough, M., Burban, L. and Monear, J. (2008). Tree Owner's Manual for the Northeastern and Midwestern United States. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5368392.pdf  LEAF - Local Enhancement & Appreciation of Forests. (n.d.). Tree Care – Ongoing Care. https://www.yourleaf.org/tree-care  Steil, A. (2022). Care of Newly-Planted Trees. Iowa State University. https://yardandgarden.extension.iastate.edu/how-to/care-newly-planted-trees  Trees Are Good. (n.d.b). Why hire an arborist? [webpage]. International Society of Arboriculture. https://www.treesaregood.org/treeowner/whyhireanarborist  Bellis, E. (2023). Recommendations to improve the health of Vancouver’s street trees surrounded by hardscape. University of British Columbia. https://sustain.ubc.ca/sites/default/�les/2023-058_RecommendationsStreetTreehealth_Bellis.pdf City of Edmonton. (n.d.). Tree Preservation Guidelines. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/ Tree_Preservation_Guidelines.pdf City of Saskatoon Parks Branch. (2019). Saskatoon’s Urban Forest – Brochure. https://www.saskatoon.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/urban_forestry_booklet.pdf Dixon, C. (2024). Why Maintenance Matters: Stewarding Our Urban Forests. Tree Canada. https://treecanada.ca/article/why-maintenance-matters-stewarding-our-urban-forests/  Gurney, S. and Ward, G. (n.d.). Natural Areas: Tree Hazard Management Strategy. City of Surrey. https://www.surrey.ca/sites/default/�les/media/documents/TreeHazardStrategy.pdf  International Society of Arboriculture. (n.d.). Tree Ownership Information. Trees Are Good. https://www.treesaregood.org/treeowner  Magditsch, D. (2012). Strategic Mulching of Trees in Forested Urban Parkland for Rooting Medium Amendment [thesis]. Toronto Metropolitan University. https://doi.org/10.32920/ryerson.14662743.v1  Pleninger, A. & Luley, C. (2012). The ABCs Field Guide to Young and Small Tree Pruning (1 ed.). Urban Other Sources st Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 112 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 113 Forestry LLC. ISBN 9780976712923 Qu, B., Liu, Y., Sun, X., Li, S., Wang, X., et al. (2019). Effect of various mulches on soil physico— Chemical properties and tree growth (Sophora japonica) in urban tree pits. PLOS ONE 14(2), e0210777. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210777 Sun, X., Zhao, J., Wang, G. et al. (2023). Fine root extension in urban forest soil depends on organic mulching. Agroforestry Systems 97, 235–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-022-00801-3  Sweeney, J., Rassati, D., Meurisse, N., Hurley, B., Duan, J., Stauffer C. and Battisti, A. (2019). Special issue on invasive pests of forests and urban trees: pathways, early detection, and management. Journal of Pest Science, 92, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-018-01073-6  Tree Canada. (2018). Canadian Urban Forest Strategy (2019-2024). https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/TC-CUFS-2019-2024-Eng-1.pdf  Wisconsin Council on Forestry. (2009). Wisconsin’s Urban Forestry Best Management Practices for Preventing the Introduction and Spread of Invasive Species. https://councilonforestry.wi.gov/Documents/InvasiveSpecies/UF-BMP-Manual.pdf  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 113 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 114 Hydro Lines and Corridors Hydro lines and hydro corridors are energy infrastructures within urban areas and Canadian urban forests. The location of hydro lines in Canada, above or below ground, depends on when the urban areas were developed and built. Aboveground hydro lines are found along city streets, sidewalks, and laneways in older subdivisions or neighbourhoods in Canada. One of the most common �xtures on Canadian streets is utility poles with hydro lines attached. Due to maintenance standards, this energy infrastructure interferes with trees and constrains tree canopy development, growth, and height (Appleton, 2006). In newer developments and subdivisions, hydro lines are buried underground, where they have the potential to restrict root growth and tree planting. In both cases, urban trees share limited growing space with these utility �xtures, restricting how many trees and which species can be planted under hydro wires. The design, planting, and maintenance of trees within or near hydro wires always requires careful considerations of factors such as available growing space, proximity to hydro wires, future risk of tree interference with electrical infrastructure, compliance with local regulations or utility guidelines, tree species selection, tree height and canopy spread at maturity, growth habit, long-term maintenance requirements, tree trimming or pruning, accessibility for maintenance crews, the potential for breakage during storms or high winds, visual aesthetics, and community impact  (Dupras et al., 2016; Appleton, 2006; Bloniarz, 1992; Browning & Wiant, 1997).  Hydro Lines In the planning and design phase, landscape and tree planting plans in areas under or Highlights Hydro lines and hydro corridors How they interact with urban trees. Regulations Tree selection, planting, and routine maintenance. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 114 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 115 close to hydro lines should consider tree height and canopy spread at maturity. It is crucial to carefully plan tree planting based on tree size at maturity, growing conditions (soil, nutrients), and distance from hydro lines to determine which species are suitable to plant under hydro wires. Choosing the right tree species can reduce pruning and maintenance intensity, leading to healthier, more aesthetically pleasing trees along streets and under hydro lines. More importantly, the right tree species can signi�cantly reduce the risk of power outages and accidental �res, resulting in economic savings (Bloniarz, 1992). Power companies and many Canadian municipalities (see Canadian Online Resources section) have a list of recommended tree species that are suitable to plant adjacent to power lines (Appleton, 2006). It is standard practice for utility companies across Canada to perform routine tree maintenance along power lines and corridors (Parent et al., 2019; Perrette et al., 2021). Utility companies also maintain street trees and park trees that are within range of hydro lines. To ensure safety and hydro wire clearance,trees under or near hydro lines are managed on an individual basis. Maintenance around power lines can only be done by trained and certi�ed professional arborists. Canadian utility companies often develop and provide various tree resources, including tree pruning maintenance standards, hazards to watch for, and a list of certi�ed arborists in the area on their websites (see Canadian Online Resources section). Trees along power lines are usually pruned at 5-6 years intervals, but some can be as frequent as 3 years (Perrette, Delagrange, & Messier, 2020; Browning & Wiant, 1997; Millet & Bouchard, 2003; Millet, 2012; Lecigne et al., 2018). A good understanding of tree species biology can help improve pruning practices, lessen its impact on trees, and reduce pruning costs (Perrette, Delagrange, & Messier, 2020; Millet, 2012). Additionally, consistently assessing the overall health of a tree can help determine the frequency of pruning and its suitability for extensive pruning (Perrette et al., 2021). This, in turn, can inform maintenance planning to optimize the allocation of time, human resources, and funding.  Hydro Corridors In addition to hydro lines, urban areas are often intersected by transmission corridors, commonly called hydro corridors. Hydro corridors are long and narrow linear spaces, covered by shrubs and grasses, used by hydro companies for high- Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 115 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 116 voltage hydro transmission, which requires very tall transmission towers. These areas have strict regulations regarding the type of vegetation growing under transmission lines due to safety concerns. Trees are prohibited under and within a certain distance from the transmission lines because their height can pose safety risks. Electricity can easily arc out of transmission lines and jump into the taller tree branches. As a result, vegetation directly under hydro lines in hydro corridors should be low. Different hydro companies and municipalities may have different rules, but most guidelines indicate that woody vegetation over 6 meters is not permitted in these areas (Hydro Ottawa, 2025). The hydro corridors themselves can support native plants and provide habitats for wildlife, insects, and birds. They often act as ecological corridors and serve as a landscape linkage between urban centers, rural communities, and beyond (Hydro Ottawa, 2010). There has also been a repurposing of how land under hydro corridors is used in urban areas, from providing recreational spaces and supporting urban gardening to strategically enhancing urban biodiversity and improving ecological connectivity in Canadian cities. For example, the Meadoway 16-kilometre-long hydro corridor in Toronto has been gradually transformed into a native meadow and will become a linear urban park when �nished (TRCA, 2022). Hydro corridor lands have been incorporated into the urban green system to support recreation in Winnipeg (Sage Creek, 2023) and urban biodiversity restoration in Calgary (City of Calgary, n.d.). Similar efforts towards restoring hydro corridors and converting them to native plant communities and wildlife habitats are happening across many Canadian cities, such as Montreal, Guelph, and Ottawa, to name a few (Hydro Quebec, 2024; Milkweed Journal, 2016; OSC, 2024). Resources City of Calgary. (n.d.). Habitat restoration. https://www.calgary.ca/parks/wildlife/habitat-restoration.html  Electrical Safety Association. (n.d.). Guidelines for pruning trees around powerlines. https://esasafe.com/assets/�les/esasafe/pdf/Electrical_Safety_Products/Guidelines/ Tree%20Pruning%20Guideline%20Tagged.pdf   Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 116 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 117 ENMAX Calgary. (n.d.). Trees and power lines. https://www.enmax.com/outages-and-safety/safety-guidelines/trees-and-power-lines Hydro Ottawa. (n.d.). Tree Trimming. https://hydroottawa.com/en/outages-safety/community-safety/tree-trimming Hydro Ottawa. (2010). Tree Planting Advice. https://static.hydroottawa.com/documents/publications/safety/tree_planting_advice-EN.pdf Hydro Ottawa. (2025). Clearances – Trees & Surface Finishing. https://hydroottawa.com/en/accounts-services/accounts/contractors-developers/clearances Hydro Québec. (n.d.). Trees and Power Lines – Choosing the right place for a tree. https://poweroutages.hydroquebec.com/poweroutages/understand-and-prevent/vegetation.html Hydro Québec. (2022). Hydro-Québec’s Biodiversity Strategy 2022-2026. https://www.hydroquebec.com/themes/developpement-durable/pdf/hydro-quebec- s_biodiversity_strategy-2022-2026.pdf Maritime Electric. (n.d.). Tree Trimming. https://www.maritimeelectric.com/safety/tree-trimming/tree-trimming/  Maritime Electric. (n.d.). Tree Planting Guide. https://www.maritimeelectric.com/safety/tree-trimming/tree-planting-guide/ Nova Scotia Power. (n.d.). Vegetation Management. https://www.nspower.ca/about-us/reliability/tree-management  New Brunswick Power. (n.d.). Tree Maintenance – Your Trees. https://www.nbpower.com/en/products-services/tree-maintenance/your-trees/ Newfoundland Power. (n.d.). Tree Trimming. https://www.newfoundlandpower.com/Safety/Electrical-Safety/Tree-Trimming Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). (2022). The Meadoway: A Blueprint for Naturalizing Infrastructure Corridors. The Meadoway. https://themeadoway.ca/app/uploads/2022/10/Meadoway-Manual-2022-FA-Web_v2.pdf Bloniarz, D. (1992). (rep.). Street Trees, Overhead Utility Distribution, and Physical Infrastructure: Design Implications, Maintenance Costs and Proposed Alternatives. Northeast Center for Urban & Community Forestry, USDA Forest Service. https://www.umass.edu/urbantree/mla.pdf  Appleton, B. L. (2006). Designing and implementing utility line arboreta. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry, Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 117 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 118 32(2), 80-85. doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2006.011 Bloniarz, D. (1992). (rep.). Street Trees, Overhead Utility Distribution, and Physical Infrastructure: Design Implications, Maintenance Costs and Proposed Alternatives. Northeast Center for Urban & Community Forestry, USDA Forest Service. https://www.umass.edu/urbantree/mla.pdf  Browning, D., & Wiant, H., (1997). The Economic Impacts of Deferring Electric Utility Tree Maintenance. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 23(3), 106-112. doi.org/10.48044/jauf.1997.017 Dupras, J., Patry, C., Tittler, R., Gonzalez, A., Alam, M., & Messier, C. (2016). Management of vegetation under electric distribution lines will affect the supply of multiple ecosystem services. Land Use Policy, 51, 66-75. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.11.005  Hydro Quebec. (2024). Upgrading the power transmission system between Aqueduc and Saraguay substations – Green Corridor Partnership. https://www.hydroquebec.com/aqueduc-saraguay/en/ Kotsopoulos, S., Turnbull, K., Cormack, C., Cartwright, L. A., Hayes, S. M., Ford, B., Shachak, R. and Watkinson, A. (2024). The Meadoway: native meadow creation in underutilized transmission line corridors. Botany, 102(10), 421-427. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjb-2023-0157.  Lecigne, B., Delagrange, S., & Messier, C. (2018). Exploring trees in three dimensions: VoxR, a novel voxel- based R package dedicated to analysing the complex arrangement of tree crowns, Annals of Botany, 121(4) 589–601, https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcx095 Milkweed Journal. (2016). Native plants turning hydro corridor into wildlife habitat. https://milkweedjournal.com/2016/05/native-plants-turning-hydro-corridor-into-wildlife-habitat/  Millet, J. (2012). L’architecture des arbres des régions tempérées: son histoire, ses concepts, ses usages. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/281590469_L'architecture_des_arbres_des_regions_temperees_son_histoire_ses_concepts _ses_usages  Millet, J., & Bouchard., A. (2003). Architecture of silver maple and its response to pruning near the power distribution network. Canadian Journal of Forest Research,33(4), 726-739. doi.org/10.1139/x02-206  Most, W., & Weissman, S. (2012). Trees and Power Lines: Minimizing Con�icts between Electric Power Infrastructure and the Urban Forest. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8kg6t2jx Ottawa Stewardship Council. (2024). Hydro Corridors: Cooperation in the Kanata North Hydro Corridor. https://www.ottawastewardship.org/category/hydro-corridors/  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 118 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 119 Parent, J. R., Meyer, T. H., Volin, J. C., Fahey, R. T., & Witharana, C. (2019). An analysis of enhanced tree trimming effectiveness on reducing power outages. Journal of Environmental Management, 241, 397-406. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.027 Perrette, G., Delagrange, S., & Messier, C. (2020). Optimizing Reduction Pruning of Trees Under Electrical Lines: The In�uence of Intensity and Season of Pruning on Epicormic Branch Growth and Wound Compartmentalization. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry, 46(6), 432-449. doi:10.48044/jauf.2020.031 Perrette, G., Delagrange, S., Ramirez, J. A., & Messier, C. (2021). Optimizing reduction pruning under electrical lines: The in�uence of tree vitality before pruning on traumatic responses. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 63. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127139 Powell, A. S., & Lindquist, E. S. (2011). Effects of power-line maintenance on forest structure in a fragmented Urban Forest, Raleigh, NC. Southeastern Naturalist, 10(1), 25-38. doi:10.1656/058.010.0103 Sage Creek. (2023). The hydro corridor – Sage Creek. https://sagecreek.qualicocommunities.com/blog/details/the-hydro-corridor/ Santos, N. A., de Freitas, L. C., Fiedler, N. C., & da Silva Leite, E. (2023). Ergonomic Analysis of Pruning Trees in Con�ict with Power Lines. Floresta, 53(4), 433-443. doi:10.5380/RF.V53I4.79831 Speak, A. F., & Salbitano, F. (2023). The impact of pruning and mortality on urban tree canopy volume. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 79. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127810  Suttle, R., Kane, B., & Bloniarz, D. (2022). Comparing the Structure, Function, Value, and Risk of Managed and Unmanaged Trees along Rights-of-Way and Streets in Massachusetts. Forests, 13(10). doi:10.3390/f13101602 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 119 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 120 Tree Selection and Planting Appropriate tree species selection should be based on environmental, ecological, social, infrastructural, and tree maintenance considerations. For example, tree selection should ensure an urban forest that is resilient and that can endure challenging urban environmental conditions, including air and soil pollution, soil compaction, drought, and road salt. Tree selection and planting are also site-speci�c and should consider soil properties, moisture availability, wind, frost, and light exposure (Nowak et al., 2010). Species-speci�c characteristics such as tree growth rate, shade tolerance, and visual appeal also play a critical role in species selection. In addition, considering maintenance needs is critical as this can determine long- term sustainability of urban forests and reduce management costs (Almas & Conway, 2016; LSRCA, 2018; Nowak, 2000; Conway & Vander Vecht, 2015).  Highlights Tree species selection must be site-specific and future-focused Effective selection considers environmental, ecological, and infrastructural factors, as well as long-term resilience to urban stressors and climate change. Climate change requires adaptive species planning Tree selection should anticipate shifting temperature zones and species suitability, using climate models and phased testing to guide planting decisions. Diversity builds urban forest resilience Avoiding over-reliance on a few species helps reduce vulnerability to pests, diseases, and environmental change, while supporting urban biodiversity. Proper planning minimizes tree-infrastructure conflicts Trees must be selected and visualized at mature size to prevent future clashes with sidewalks, buildings, or utilities, reducing maintenance costs and risks. Nursery stock quality and planting methods are critical Tree health at planting, correct handling of root systems, and ongoing care determine whether trees thrive to maturity and deliver full ecological bene�ts. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 120 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 121 Tree Selection and Sites Tree species selection should be based on site conditions, location, species compatibility with local climate and species hardiness zone, tree size, form, and aesthetic/public appeal. Other factors to consider are tree growth rate, environmental suitability (soil characteristics, pH, moisture regimes, salt tolerance), and the tree’s function within the space (shade provision, aesthetic, etc.). Well-considered criteria for tree species selection can result in secondary bene�ts for the larger urban forestry program. Some of these bene�ts include reducing long-term maintenance costs, building an urban forest resilient to climate change, providing manageable urban forest solutions to neighbourhoods and communities, and maintaining a diversity of tree species that bene�t wildlife in cities and towns (Almas & Conway, 2016).  In the design and planning stage of tree selection, trees should be visualized at full functional size. This helps to minimize later con�icts between trees and structures and reduces maintenance needs that may arise from unexpected issues. Selecting a tree that is well-suited to the soil conditions, light availability, pedestrian tra�c, drainage, space, and microclimate of the speci�c site is essential to the tree’s long- term survival and to public safety (Vibrant Cities Lab, n.d.).  To make the decision process easier, Canadian municipalities often list species that can thrive in their speci�c urban context based on the tree selection considerations and their experience (see City of Markham, 2009; City of Kelowna, 2020; City of Toronto, 2021, 2024; Metro Vancouver, 2017; Ville de Quebec, n.d.).  Climate Change  When selecting tree species, their long-term climatic suitability is increasingly important for successful planting decisions. As climate change brings warmer weather to many Canadian cities, individual species’ suitability is expected to change over time (Khan & Conway, 2020). The composition of urban forests needs to adapt and shift in anticipation of this trend. Suitable climate conditions for many tree species are shifting northward much faster than trees can naturally migrate (Metro Vancouver, 2017). As a result, tree species selection must be based on forethought Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 121 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 122 and consideration of changing climate regimes, rising temperatures, and levels of tolerance that individual tree species have for rising temperatures and shifting conditions.   To determine a species’ suitability in the context of climate change, a combination of historical range, current suitable habitat, and climate projection models can be used as a basis for analysis (LSRCA, 2018). This process helps determine if a species is retreating northward, continuing to persist, or becoming a new suitable possibility. Trees and other species that are becoming increasingly unsuited to their location may experience stunted growth and shorter lifespans. Species that persist in urban settings tend to have a wider ecological amplitude and climatic range and are likely to continue to thrive in the future (Das, Ossola & Beaumont, 2024; Liang & Huang, 2023). For species that may become more suitable as climate change progresses, testing their survivability in the new environment before widespread implementation by planting limited amounts can prevent large-scale tree mortality in the future (LSRCA, 2018). These assessments should be updated as more data for different species and new climatic models become available. Flexibility in modifying planting programs can help mitigate the risk of implementing new species.   Since urban forest planning is a long-term vision and young trees take years to grow, active engagement with nurseries can ensure that su�cient planting stock of speci�c species is available. Coordination with nurseries can also lead to the sharing of knowledge, which can be a hugely bene�cial source of information in implementing new planting programs or testing of new tree species (Khan & Conway, 2020; LSRCA, 2018). Species Diversity and Composition The diversity of tree species is critical in building and maintaining a resilient urban forest. Having a large variety of tree species allows an urban forest to better absorb shocks brought by pests, diseases, and climate change. For instance, the spread of Emerald Ash Borer put around 20% of Montreal’s urban forest at risk, and thousands of trees were cut down between 1999-2020 (Canadian Institute for Climate Choices, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 122 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 123 2021). Many of the trees that were impacted were mature with wide-spreading canopies, which provided various bene�ts like climate regulation, air quality, and stormwater management bene�ts that a newly planted sapling could not immediately replace. Ash trees across North American cities were impacted at similar or worse rates. This highlights the importance of supporting tree diversity to strengthen urban forest resilience to a changing climate and environmental threats. In addition to considering urban forest diversity, tree species that are dioecious (male and female trees), tree species sex and overall tree diversity should be considered when selecting trees to plant. Historically, male trees have been preferably planted in urban settings as they are considered less “messy” and do not produce fruits or seeds (Nowak & Ogren, 2021). While female plants produce fruits and nuts and provide food for birds and other urban wildlife, they require higher maintenance and upkeep. As a result, they have not been favoured for planting to avoid fruit cleanup in high human tra�c areas. Studies have shown how the planting of mostly male trees across cities in North America has led to increased urban pollen concentrations, which has been correlated with increased seasonal allergies. Favouring male trees has a long-term impact on urban forest and tree species composition, as well as resilience against pests and overall city biodiversity. It also contributes to perceived tree disservices as overproduction of pollen can impact human health (Katz, Robinson, Ellis & Nowak, 2024). Furthermore, urban trees planted along streets, parks, in residential and institutional areas often include many cultivars selected for their speci�c traits, such as growth rate, canopy shape, leaf and �ower colour, the absence of fruit, visual appeal, or other features. The predictability of their growth and other characteristics, and how these trees eventually grow, make these cultivars desirable for some urban environments and landscaping. There are hundreds of cultivars, of which some have been planted more than others. However, cultivars are clones that share identical genetic material, reduce genetic diversity, and increase vulnerability to pests, diseases, and environmental stressors. Heavily relying on cultivars can lead to portions of the urban forest becoming monocultures, but also having monocultures across cities (Avolio, 2023; Sacre, 2020; Lohr, Kendal & Dobbs, 2016). Tree Planting Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 123 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 124 Tree planting material should be inspected for damage and disease before being purchased from nurseries to ensure successful tree establishment and growth. Some common issues of tree planting materials are damage to the trunk, broken branches, or injuries to the root system (International Society of Arboriculture, 2021). The three common types of nursery trees are ball and burlap, container, and bare root stock. Each has its advantages and limitations when planting and should be selected based on the needs of the site or project (International Society of Arboriculture, 2021; Natural Resources Canada, 2023). The Arbor Day Foundation has a useful guide on how to plant each type of nursery tree. Planting under speci�c circumstances may have different requirements, such as when planting under power lines or for hard- surface planting in intensely urbanized areas.  Depending on how trees are packaged and sold, their planting methods differ. Young trees often come in containers, as ball and burlap, or as bare root trees. One of the main concerns for trees that come in containers is root girdling. Root balls should be loosened on the bottom and sides to ensure no roots grow to choke the plant (International Society of Arboriculture, 2021a; Tree Canada, 2023). For trees that come in ball and burlap, it is important to cut away the burlap and wire basket, or the packaging will slowly strangle the tree as it grows (Tree Canada, 2023). For bare root stock, the most important thing is to ensure that the root does not dry out prior to and during the planting process (Virginia Department of Forestry, n.d.). The ultimate goal of urban tree planting is for the trees to reach maturity and provide maximum bene�ts, such as carbon sequestration, shade, and biodiversity. Therefore, monitoring and maintaining young trees so that they continue growing and thriving is an imperative part of urban forest management.  Resources Corrigan, S. (2024, August 6). The Ultimate Guide on How to Plant Urban Trees. 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(n.d.-b). Factsheet: Site selection and preparation – How to �nd and prepare sites for planting trees. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-site-selection-and-preparation  Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.-c). Factsheet: Tree stock selection – How to choose the right trees to plant. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-tree-stock-selection  Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.-d). Factsheet: The role of tree diversity in strengthening urban forests. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-role-tree-diversity-strengthening-urban-forests  Natural Resources Canada. Government of Canada. (2023). 2 Billion Trees – A Guide for Successful Tree Planting: Grow a Green Future. https://ostrnrcan-dostrncan.canada.ca/entities/publication/55665d3a-1a85-4336- b64a-2824d24a2837  Hughes, M., Oaksford, E., & Blakeslee, M. (2014). (rep.). Urban Forest Climate Adaptation - A Designer’s List of Appropriate Trees for the Urban Mid-Atlantic. https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/�les/15375.pdf Mattson, B., Brusse, B., Krahn, A., Voogd, H., & Weerdenburg, R. (2017). (rep.). (A. Heuver & G. Lumis, Eds.) Canadian Nursery Stock Standard (9th ed., pp. 1–56). Milton, Ontario: Canadian Nursery Landscape Association. https://cnla.ca/uploads/pdf/Canadian-Nursery-Stock-Standard-9th-ed-web.pdf Natural Resources Canada. (2023). Grow A green future: A guide for successful tree planting. NRCan Open S&T Repository. https://ostrnrcan-dostrncan.canada.ca/handle/1845/218080 Tree Canada. (2023). How to plant a Tree. https://treecanada.ca/how-to-plant-a-tree/ City of Edmonton. (n.d.). Edmonton’s Ecological Network. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/Ecological_Network_Map.pdf? 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Urban Forest Climate Adaptation Framework for Metro Vancouver: Tree Species Selection, Planting and Management. https://metrovancouver.org/services/regional-planning/Documents/urban-forest-climate-adaptation- framework-tree-species-selection.pdf Vancouver Board of Parks and Recreation. (2022). Park Development Standard Drawing: Planting. https://vancouver.ca/�les/cov/park-development-standard-drawings-8-00-planting.pdf Trees Winnipeg. (n.d.). Tree Planting and Selection. https://www.treeswinnipeg.org/tree-care-101/tree-selection-planting City of Halifax. (n.d.). Halifax Regional Municipality Street Trees – Brochure. https://cdn.halifax.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/transportation/streets-sidewalks/hrm-street-tree- brochure_1.pdf  City of Halifax. (2021). Municipal Design Guidelines 2021 – Part A: Design Guidelines and Standards. https://cdn.halifax.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/transportation/streets-sidewalks/Part%20A%20- %20Municipal%20Design%20Guidelines%202021_0.pdf  City of Markham. (2009). Markham Trees for Tomorrow: Streetscape Manual. https://www.markham.ca/sites/default/�les/neighbourhood-sevices/Tree%20Care/t4t-streetscape- British Colombia Manitoba Nova Scotia Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 126 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 127 manual%20(1).pdf  City of Ottawa. (2024). Tree Planting. https://ottawa.ca/en/living-ottawa/environment-conservation-and-climate/public-spaces-and- environmental-programs/tree-planting# City of Richmond Hill. (2016). (rep.). Urban Forest Planting Guidelines (pp. 1–43). https://www.richmondhill.ca/en/shared-content/resources/documents/urban-forest-planting- guidelines.pdf City of Toronto. (2021). Toronto Street Tree Guide – May 2021. https://www.toronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/9765-Street-Tree-Brochure.pdf  City of Toronto. (2024). Tree Planting. https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/water-environment/trees/tree-planting/ Credit Valley Conservation. (2011). Guide to Native Plant Nurseries & Seed Suppliers. https://�les.cvc.ca/cvc/uploads/2011/01/CVCNativePlantNurseries.pdf  Credit Valley Conservation Tree Planting Service. (2011). Plant Species & Site Selection Table. Credit Valley Conservation. https://�les.cvc.ca/cvc/uploads/2011/02/5-SiteSelectionTable-web.pdf  Ferguson Forest Center. (2010). (rep.). Choosing the Right Tree: A Landowner’s Guide to Putting Down Roots (pp. 1–18). https://fgca.net/wp-content/uploads/ChoosingTheRightTree2010FINAL2016.pdf Forest Gene Conservation Association. (2021). A Landowners Guide to Native Woody Species of Southcentral Ontario: Species information table. https://fgca.net/wp-content/uploads/Spp_InfoTABLE_2021.pdf Grey Sauble Conservation. (2019). Species Descriptions: Choosing the Right Tree for Your Site. https://www.greysauble.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Species-Descriptions.pdf  Hydro Ottawa. (2010). Tree planting advice - hydro Ottawa. https://static.hydroottawa.com/documents/publications/safety/tree_planting_advice-EN.pdf. Landowner Resource Center. (2000). Maintaining Healthy Urban Trees. http://www.lrconline.com/Extension_Notes_English/pdf/urbntrs.pdf. Landscape Ontario. (n.d.). Trees for urban landscapes. https://landscapeontario.com/trees-for-urban-landscapes McGrath, D., Munroe, R. & Henry, J. (2019). Ontario Landscape Tree Planting Guide. Landscape Ontario. https://landscapeontario.com/ assets/1570803523.Ontario_Landscape_Tree_Planting_Guide-2019_updated.pdf  South Nation Conservation. (n.d.). Trees, Soil Types and Drainage. https://www.nation.on.ca/sites/default/�les/ Trees%2C%20soil%20types%20and%20drainage%20fact%20sheet.pdf  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 127 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 128 Thomas, B., Stoehr, M., Schreiber, S.G., Benowicz, A., Schroeder, W.R., Soolanayakanahall, R. ... My, M. (2023). Tree Improvement in Canada – past, present and future, 2023 and beyond. The Forestry Chronicle, 100(1), 1-29. https://mffp.gouv.qc.ca/documents/forets/recherche/AP_thomas-et-al-2024-tree-improvement-in- canad.pdf  Ville de Quebec. (n.d.). Répertoire des essences d’arbres. https://www.ville.quebec.qc.ca/citoyens/environnement/arbres-plantes/essences-arbres/index.aspx City of Regina. (n.d.). Trees in your yard. https://www.regina.ca/home-property/tree-yard/trees/ City of Saskatoon Parks Branch. (n.d.). (rep.). Saskatoon’s Urban Forest. https://www.saskatoon.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/urban_forestry_booklet.pdf. Bassuk, N., Curtis, D. F., Marranca, B. Z., and Neal, B. (2009). Recommended Urban Trees: Site Assessment and Tree Selection for Stress Tolerance. Cornell University Department of Horticulture, Ithaca. http://www.hort.cornell.edu/uhi/outreach/recurbtree/pdfs/~recurbtrees.pdf  Eisenman, T.S., Roman, L. A., Östberg, J., Campbell, L. K., and Svendsen, E. (2024). Beyond the Golden Shovel: recommendations for a successful urban tree planting initiative. Journal of the American Planning Association, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2024.2330943  University of California, Davis. (2011). Soil texture by feel [video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWZwbVJCNec Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute at Cal Poly. (n.d.). A tree selection guide. SelecTree. https://selectree.calpoly.edu/ Virginia Department of Forestry. (n.d.). Planting trees. https://dof.virginia.gov/urban-community-forestry/urban-forestry-homeowner-assistance/planting- trees/ Worsley, W. (2022). Urban Tree Manual: The Right Tree in the Right Place for a Resilient Future. UK Forest Research. https://cdn.forestresearch.gov.uk/2022/02/7111_fc_urban_tree_manual_v15.pdf Quebec Saskatchewan Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 128 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 129 Almas, A. D. & Conway, T. M. (2016). The role of native species in urban forest planning and practice: A case study of Carolinian Canada. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 17, 54-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.01.015 Arbor Day Foundation. (n.d.). Tree Planting & Care. https://www.arborday.org/trees/index-planting.cfm Avolio, M. L. 2023. The unexplored effects of arti�cial selection on urban tree populations. American Journal of Botany 110(7), e16187. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.16187  Canadian Institute for Climate Choices. (2021). Growing Forests in a City. https://climatechoices.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Urban-Trees-study_May11b.pdf  Carol-Aristizabal, M., Dupras, J., Messier, C., & Sousa-Silva, R. (2024). Which Tree Species Best Withstand Urban Stressors? Ask the Experts. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 50(1), 57. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2023.026  City of Guelph. (n.d.). Healthy Landscapes – Plant List Native and Drought-Tolerant Plants Guelph. https://guelph.ca/wp-content/uploads/droughtTolerant-NativePlants.pdf. City of Toronto. (2012). Drought Tolerant Landscaping - A Resource for Development. https://www.toronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/979b-city-planning-drought-tolerant- landscaping.pdf. City of Vancouver. (2017). Urban Forest Climate Adaptation Framework for Metro Vancouver: Tree Species Selection, Planting and Management. https://metrovancouver.org/services/regional-planning/Documents/urban-forest-climate-adaptation- framework-tree-species-selection.pdf Conway, T. M. & Vander Vecht, J. (2015). Growing a diverse urban forest: Species selection decisions by practitioners planting and supplying trees. Landscape and Urban Planning, 138, 1-10. doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.01.007 Das, S., Ossola, A., & Beaumont, L. J. (2024). Records of urban occurrences expand estimates of the climate niches in tree species. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 33, e13809. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13809  Eisenman, T. S., Roman, L. A., Östberg, J., Campbell, L. K., & Svendsen, E. (2024). Beyond the Golden Shovel: Recommendations for a Successful Urban Tree Planting Initiative. Journal of the American Planning Association, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2024.2330943  Ferrini, F., Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C.C. & Fini, A. (2017). Routledge Handbook of Urban Forestry (1 ed.), ch. 23-25. ISBN 9781315627106 Gerstenberg, T. & Hofmann, M. (2016). Perception and preference of trees: A psychological contribution to tree species selection in urban areas. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 15, 103-111. doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.12.004 st Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 129 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 130 International Society of Arboriculture. (2021). (rep.). Buying High-Quality Trees (pp. 1–3). Trees Are Good. https://www.treesaregood.org/Portals/0/ TreesAreGood_Buying%20High%20Quality%20Trees_0321.pdf International Society of Arboriculture. (2021a). Tree Selection and Placement (pp. 1–2). Retrieved from Trees Are Good. https://www.treesaregood.org/Portals/0/ TreesAreGood_Tree%20Selection%20and%20Placement_0621.pdf Katz, D. S. W., Robinson, G. S., Ellis, A., & Nowak, D. J. (2024). The effects of tree planting on allergenic pollen production in New York City. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 92.  doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2024.128208 Khan, T., & Conway, T. M. (2020). Vulnerability of Common Urban Forest Species to Projected Climate Change and Practitioners Perceptions and Responses. Environmental Management, 65(4), 534-547. doi:10.1007/s00267-020-01270-z Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority (LSRCA. (2018). Adapting Forestry Programs for Climate Change. https://lsrca.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Adapting-Forestry-Programs-for-Climate- Changeoptimized.pdf Liang, D., & Huang, G. (2023). In�uence of Urban Tree Traits on Their Ecosystem Services: A Literature Review. Land, 12(9), 1699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091699  Lohr, V.I., Kendal, D. and Dobbs, C. (2016). Urban trees worldwide have low species and genetic diversity, posing high risks of tree loss as stresses from climate change increase. Acta Horticulturae, 1108, 263-270. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2016.1108.34  Martínez-García, L.B., Pietrangelo, O. & Antunes, P .M. (2016). Parent tree distance-dependent recruitment limitation of native and exotic invasive seedlings in urban forests. Urban Ecosystems 19, 969–981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-015-0507-z  Nowak, D. J., & Ogren, T. L. (2021). Variations in urban forest allergy potential among cities and land uses. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 63. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127224 Nowak, D. J., Stein, S. M., Randler, P . B., Green�eld, E. J., Comas, S. J., Carr, M. A., and Alig, R. J. (2010). Sustaining America’s urban trees and forests: a Forests on the Edge report. General Technical Report NRS-62. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 27 p. https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs62.pdf  Sacre, K. (2020). Diversity in urban tree populations. ARB Magazine, 190, 82-84. The Arboricultural Association. https://www.treeconomics.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/P82-84.pdf  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 130 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 131 Samaha, J. A. (2019). Finding urban trees for a changing world. https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/24/items/1.0380694 Sjöman, H., Hirons, A. D., & Bassuk, N. L. (2015). Urban forest resilience through tree selection—Variation in drought tolerance in Acer. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 14(4), 858-865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.08.004 Sousa-Silva, R., Du�os, M., Ordóñez Barona, C. and Paquette, A. (2023). Keys to better planning and integrating urban tree planting initiatives. Landscape & Urban Planning, 231, 104649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104649  Vibrant Cities Lab. (n.d.). Tree Planting: There’s More to Planting a Tree Than Digging a Hole. https://vibrantcitieslab.com/toolkit/tree-planting/ Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 131 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 132 Hard Surface Planting With increased urbanization, environmental and climate changes, healthy, long-living urban trees are critical for providing ecological services such as air quality improvement, stormwater management, and energy conservation. However, these bene�ts cannot be fully realized when tree growth is limited by inadequate space and soil (Mullaney, Lucke, & Trueman, 2015a). One of the most persistent challenges in establishing and maintaining a healthy, resilient, and functional urban forest is the ongoing battle between tree roots, gray infrastructure, and various hard surface pavements. Due to the lack of ample growing space, trees are often planted in restricted soil spaces surrounded by pavement, asphalt, or concrete. As a result, such trees often have limited soil volume to support their growth, inadequate access to nutrients, and a lack of oxygen and water to support their basic physiological functions.  Con�ict with urban structures, limited growing space, and hard surface covering the root system can lead to root damage and root girdling. This often results in pavement lifting as roots of large trees try to access nutrients and water (Watson, Highlights Urban trees need space Trees offer key ecological bene�ts but struggle in compact, paved urban areas. Roots vs. pavement Limited soil and hard surfaces cause root damage and infrastructure issues. Pavement limits benefits Hard surfaces reduce trees’ cooling and ecological functions. Design matters Smart planning, soil solutions, and permeable surfaces support healthier trees. Ongoing care is essential Long-term maintenance and site-speci�c solutions help trees thrive in cities. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 132 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 133 Hewitt, Custic & Lo, 2014; Mullaney et al., 2015a). Pavement lifting creates safety hazards for street users, causes concern for property owners and residents, and signi�cantly impacts the aesthetic value of public spaces (Watson et al., 2014).  Recent studies reveal that surface paving also signi�cantly affects the ability of trees to provide ecological services. Surrounding hard surfaces in�uences a tree's cooling effect more than species selection, highlighting the strong impact and restrictions pavements impose on urban trees' health and ecological functions. This underscores the strong impact and restrictions that hard surfaces impose on the health of urban trees and their ecological functions (Konarska et al., 2023).  Planting trees on hard surfaces and as part of new developments can be very expensive, and without proper forethought, can bring few bene�ts and prove to be a liability. When tree planting is carefully designed, planned, and implemented, hard- surface tree issues can be avoided or minimized. Healthy tree growth and survival can be ensured by selecting appropriate tree species for the growing space available, using an adequate soil medium to encourage tree root growth, constructing continuous channels connecting individual planting pits, implementing pervious paving around trees, and providing su�cient irrigation.  Land use and site planning decisions, combined with poor tree selection and planting practices, can generate problems down the road. However, past mistakes are learning opportunities for improving future practices. For example, studies on permeable paving with deep granular substrates have shown promising results in mitigating damage to the pavement and tree roots by allowing them to grow at greater depth. The permeable pavement supplies the soil with su�cient oxygen, nutrients, and moisture to allow for woody growth at greater depths without impacting the growth rate (Lucke & Beechman, 2019). Still, depending on the soil type of the underlying base layer, the effectiveness of permeable pavement may vary (Mullaney et al., 2015b).  There are solutions to improve the existing trees' growth conditions, allowing them to extend their life and continue to provide ecological services. Management and maintenance of trees to support root growth within hardscapes include techniques such as de-pavement, soil aeration, soil improvements, building bridges over tree Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 133 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 134 roots, and establishing root barriers. However, these interventions are often short- term solutions as tree roots continue to grow, and trees might decline, necessitating additional interventions. This also underscores the ongoing nature of tree management and the need for continuous tree care (Watson et al., 2014). There are less costly and site-speci�c techniques to improve the growing conditions. For example, planting �ower beds and other vegetation around tree trunks or installing covers or grates over planting pits can reduce foot tra�c around trees while also helping to improve soil conditions. In places where soil volume and quality are lacking, structural soil can be implemented to ensure healthy root growth. These solutions are often used in highly urban environments such as parking lots and downtown streets with lots of pavement and tra�c. This planting solution protects the growing medium from compaction and is formulated to provide the nutrients needed for tree growth. Structural soils are expensive to implement, di�cult to maintain, and often provide limited years of tree growth and performance shorter than a tree's typical lifespan. However, it is usually the only viable solution in intensely urban areas with heavy pedestrian tra�c. Resources Government of Canada. (2023) A Guide for Successful Tree Planting. https://ostrnrcan-dostrncan.canada.ca/entities/publication/55665d3a-1a85-4336- b64a-2824d24a2837  GreenBlue Urban. (2024). Creating healthier urban spaces in harmony with nature. https://www.greenblue.com/na/  Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.). Factsheet: Tree planting process. Green Municipal Fund. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-tree-planting-process Hughes, M., Oaksford, E., & Blakeslee, M. (2014). (rep.). Urban Forest Climate Adaptation - A Designer's List of Appropriate Trees for the Urban Mid-Atlantic. https://bugwoodcloud.org/resource/�les/15375.pdf Mattson, B., Brusse, B., Krahn, A., Voogd, H., & Weerdenburg, R. (2017). (rep.). (A. Heuver & G. Lumis, Eds.) Canadian Nursery Stock Standard (9th ed., pp. 1–56). Milton, Ontario: Canadian Nursery Landscape Association. Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 134 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 135 https://cnla.ca/uploads/pdf/Canadian-Nursery-Stock-Standard-9th-ed-web.pdf Urban, J. (n.d.). City of Toronto – Tree Planting Solutions in Hard Boulevard Surfaces (Best Practices Manual). Tree Canada. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CUFC-2014-19-James-Urban- Toronto%E2%80%99s-Pioneering-Standards-for-Trees-in-Hard-Boulevards.pdf  Bassuk, N., Curtis, D. F., Marranca, B. Z., and Neal, B. (2009). Recommended Urban Trees: Site Assessment and Tree Selection for Stress Tolerance. Cornell University Department of Horticulture, Ithaca. http://www.hort.cornell.edu/uhi/outreach/recurbtree/pdfs/~recurbtrees.pdf   Bassuk, N., Trowbridge, P . and Grabosky, J. (2014). Structural Soils – Part 1. American Society of Landscape Architects. https://the�eld.asla.org/2014/01/30/structural-soil-part-1/  Bassuk, N., Denig, B., Haffner, T., Grabosky, J. and Trowbridge, P . (2015). CU-Structural Soil® A Comprehensive Guide. Cornell University Urban Horticulture Institute. http://www.hort.cornell.edu/uhi/outreach/pdfs/CU-Structural%20Soil%20- %20A%20Comprehensive%20Guide.pdf  Citygreen. (2021). The Problems Urban Street Tree Face. https://citygreen.com/the-challenges-of-an-urban-street-tree/  Cornell University Urban Horticulture Institute. (n.d.). CU-Structural Soil™. https://blogs.cornell.edu/urbanhort/outreach/cu-structural-soil/  Deeproot Urban Landscape Project. (2024). Building Green Cities with DeepRoot. https://www.deeproot.com/  Goetz, Scott & Wright, Robb & Smith, Andrew & Zinecker, Elizabeth & Schaub, Erika. (2003). IKONOS Imagery for Resource Management: Tree Cover, Impervious Surfaces, and Riparian Buffer Analyses in the Mid-Atlantic Region. Remote Sensing of Environment, 88, 195-208. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/222571075_IKONOS_Imagery_for_Resource_Management_Tree_Cover_Impervious_Surfac es_and_Riparian_Buffer_Analyses_in_the_Mid-Atlantic_Region  Greene, C. (2014). How Quality Soil Grows Healthy Street Trees. https://citygreen.com/quality-soil-healthy-city-trees/  Watson, G. W., Hewitt, A. M., Custic, M., & Lo, M. (2014). The Management of Tree Root Systems in Urban and Suburban Settings II: A Review of Strategies to Mitigate Human Impacts. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry (AUF), 40(5), 249-271. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/287320019_The_Management_of_Tree_Root_Systems_in_Urban_and_Suburban_Settings_I I_A_Review_of_Strategies_to_Mitigate_Human_Impacts Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 135 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 136 Abuseif, M., Dupre, K., & Michael, R. N. (2022). Trees on buildings: Opportunities, challenges, and recommendations. Building and Environment, 225. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368295737_Trees_on_buildings_A_design_framework.   Aryal, B., Steenberg J. W. N., and Duinker, P . N. (2022). The Effects of Residential Street Tree Spacing and Crown Interactions on Crown Dimensions and Canopy Cover. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 47 (5), 183-195. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2021.017  Booth, D. B., Hartley, D., & Jackson, R. (2002). FOREST COVER, IMPERVIOUS-SURFACE AREA, AND THE MITIGATION OF STORMWATER IMPACTS 1. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 38(3), 835-845. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2002.tb01000.x  Citygreen. (n.d.). Colourful street trees continue to thrive in Rossland, Canada. https://citygreen.com/case-studies/colourful-street-trees-continue-to-thrive-in-rossland-canada/ de la Mota Daniel, F. J., Day, S. D., Owen, J. S., Stewart, R. D., Steele, M. K., & Sridhar, V. (2018). Porous- permeable pavements promote growth and establishment and modify root depth distribution of Platanus × acerifolia (Aiton) Willd. in simulated urban tree pits. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 33, 27-36. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2018.05.003  Fini, A., Frangi, P ., Comin, S., Vigevani, I., Rettori, A. A., Brunetti, C., . . . Ferrini, F. (2022). Effects of pavements on established urban trees: Growth, physiology, ecosystem services and disservices. Landscape and Urban Planning, 226. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104501 Gooden, B. (2020). Woonerf: A Living Street Concept for Shared City Spaces. Citygreen. https://citygreen.com/woonerf-street-concept-for-shared-city-spaces/ Herold, N.D., & Koeln, G.T. (2003) Mapping Impervious Surfaces and Forest Canopy Using Classi�cation and Regression Tree (CART) Analysis. ASPRS 2003 Annual Conference Proceedings, Anchorage, AK, May 2003, 1-7. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/MAPPING-IMPERVIOUS-SURFACES-AND-FOREST-CANOPY- USING-Herold-Koeln/052154ed604ca3760fa7cadabc087a1078e5a1b3  Konarska, J., Tarvainen, L., Bäcklin, O., Räntfors, M., & Uddling, J. (2023). Surface paving more important than species in determining the physiology, growth and cooling effects of urban trees. Landscape and Urban Planning, 240. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104872 Lucke, T., & Beecham, S. (2019). An in�ltration approach to reducing pavement damage by street trees. Science of the Total Environment, 671, 94-100. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.357 Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 136 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 137 Mullaney, J., Lucke, T., & Trueman, S. J. (2015). The effect of permeable pavements with an underlying base layer on the growth and nutrient status of urban trees. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 14(1), 19-29. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2014.11.007 Mullaney, J., Lucke, T., & Trueman, S. J. (2015). A review of bene�ts and challenges in growing street trees in paved urban environments. Landscape and Urban Planning, 134, 157-166. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.013 Qi, S., Cheng, Z., Hallett, R., Egendorf, S. P ., Reinmann, A. B., & Groffman, P . M. (2024). Feasibility of constructed soils for tree planting – A pilot study in New York City. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 96. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2024.128342  Rötzer, T., Moser-Reischl, A., Rahman, M. A., Hartmann, C., Paeth, H., Pauleit, S., & Pretzsch, H. (2021). Urban tree growth and ecosystem services under extreme drought. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 308-309. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2021.108532 Watson, G. W., Hewitt, A. M., Custic, M., & Lo, M. (2014). The Management of Tree Root Systems in Urban and Suburban Settings II: A Review of Strategies to Mitigate Human Impacts. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 40(5), 249–271. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2014.025 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 137 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 138 Urban Woodlot and Park Management Natural areas such as woodlots, ravines and other open areas with self-sustained vegetation make up a signi�cant component of the urban forest and land-use fabric. They are composed of natural and semi-natural vegetation and managed for their multiple ecological and social functions. Natural areas are a component of the urban forest that are managed at a stand (i.e. group of trees) level. They are a vital part of urban green infrastructure and enable linking urban areas and regional networks (City of Ottawa, 2022; Ontario Nature, 2014). Due to their position near and within cities, urban woodlots and natural parks also face multiple anthropogenic challenges including pollution, contamination, and heavy recreational pressure which leads to soil compaction and invasive species proliferation. They also tend to have multiple groups of stakeholders who all carry different needs and management capacities (Duinker et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2015).  As critical components of the urban forest, urban natural parks and woodlots hold native diversity and provide wildlife habitat, absorb and �lter rainwater, and provide outdoor recreation opportunities to city residents. Urban woodlot and park management involves addressing several common issues, including ensuring safety via regular tree and risk assessments, mitigating the impacts of recreation such as Highlights Woodlots Self-sustaining urban green spaces that provide wildlife habitats, recreational opportunities, and ecological bene�ts to urban communities. Challenges Pollution, contamination, recreational pressure, soil compaction and invasive species proliferation. Woodlot Management Plans Outline explicit management and conservation strategies, must be goal-oriented and based on site-speci�c information and data. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 138 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 139 soil compaction and garbage dumping, and monitoring and managing invasive species to limit their spread and negative effects on plant and wildlife communities. Efforts also focus on encouraging community use and stewardship by supporting involvement in tree planting, restoration, and other stewardship efforts and activities, as well as protecting and restoring ecosystems through ongoing monitoring and initiatives to strengthen forest health. Because of their many functions, pressures, and stakeholders, urban woodlots and parks should be managed with multiple goals in mind. Their management should be based on detailed knowledge and data about their structure, composition, and health, as well as the pressures of community use (Duinker et al., 2017).  The management of natural parks and woodlots involves several steps. First, determining clear management goals is essential to guide all subsequent actions. These goals may include enhancing biodiversity, promoting recreation and ecological values, ensuring safety, preserving culture, or storing carbon. Conducting a detailed and informative inventory that includes the entire vegetation community composition provides the base data necessary to develop an effective management and conservation plan. Detailed data collection enables assessing the current state of the woodlot or park, including its �ora, fauna, soil conditions, water resources, and any existing human impacts or infrastructure (Tuckett, 2013; Puric-Mladenovic & Baird, 2017). Speci�c management and conservation strategies are developed by following set objectives and are based on inventory data and identi�ed environmental and anthropogenic pressures. Management strategies may include controlling invasive plants, managing trails to reduce soil compaction, planting native species, or engaging the community in restoration projects.  While similar problems and opportunities might be present across natural areas and woodlands, individual urban woodlands or patches of natural areas often need to be evaluated and managed according to their speci�c attributes, policy designation or role in the local urban ecosystem. For example, some of them might have a higher density of trails, deer browsing issues, and a decline in tree species. Some could provide wildlife or species at risk habitat or require �re to manage native biodiversity, such as High Park in Toronto (High Park Nature. 2019). In terms of woodlot management activities, cities such as Guelph, Saskatoon, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 139 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 140 Winnipeg, and Halifax have focused management plans to manage the spread of invasive buckthorn using chemical strategies such as herbicides and physical methods such as tree cutting (ISC, n.d.). Other examples include municipalities that have prioritized biodiversity and conservation in these natural remnant woodlots (City of Toronto, 2019; City of Surrey, 2014; City of Edmonton, 2009). Some other Ontario municipalities are partnering with academic institutions or allied organizations with established vegetation monitoring and research to better understand and manage these natural areas (Puric-Mladenovic, 2015; Puric-Mladenovic & Baird, 2017). Urban woodlot management comes in many forms and must be based on detailed data, guided by set goals at an individual woodlot level, and updated regularly based on community needs and ecological health. Resources Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development. (2015). Woodlot Management Guide for Alberta – Bene�cial Management Practices. Alberta Government. https://open.alberta.ca/publications/9780773261150 City of Edmonton. (2009). City of Edmonton Natural Connections Biodiversity Action Plan. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/ Edmonton_Biodiversity_Action_Plan_Final.PDF City of Edmonton. (2014). City-Wide Natural Area Management Plan January 2014. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/City- Wide_Natural_Area_Management_Plan.pdf City of Edmonton. (2023). Natural Stand Valuation Guidelines. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/ DRAFT_NaturalStandValuationGuidelines.pdf  B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development. (2019). Woodlot Licence Management Plan Handbook. Government of British Columbia. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/timber- teballnures/woodlots/woodlot_mngmt_plan_handbook.pdf  Canadian Provincial Alberta British Colombia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 140 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 141 City of Surrey. (2014). City of Surrey Biodiversity Conservation Strategy. https://www.surrey.ca/sites/default/�les/media/documents/Surrey_BCS_Report.pdf Ward, D. (n.d.). City of Surrey – Natural Areas: Fauna Management Strategy. City of Surrey Parks, Recreation and Culture Department. https://www.surrey.ca/sites/default/�les/media/documents/fauna_management.pdf Stanley Park Ecology Society. (2024). All Reports - Stanley Park Ecology Society (SPES).  https://stanleyparkecology.ca/ecology/reports-plans/all-reports/#best-practices  B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd. (2024). Stanley Park Hemlock Looper Impact and Wild�re Risk Assessment. City of Vancouver Board of Parks and Recreation. https://vancouver.ca/�les/cov/stanley-park-hemlock-looper-report.pdf  City of Halifax. (2008). All Chapters – Point Pleasant Park Comprehensive Plan. https://www.halifax.ca/city-hall/boards-committees-commissions/i-r/point-pleasant-park-advisory- committee/point-pleasant  Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources and Renewables. (n.d.). Publications for woodlot owners [website]. https://novascotia.ca/natr/woodlot/publications.asp  City of Niagara Falls. (n.d.). City of Niagara Falls Woodland Management Plan. https://niagarafalls.ca/pdf/living/conservation/woodland-management/woodland-management- plan.pdf  City of Ottawa. (2022). Signi�cant Woodlands Guidelines for Identi�cation, Evaluation, and Impact Assessment. https://documents.ottawa.ca/sites/default/�les/signi�cant_woodlands_en.pdf City of Toronto. (2019). Wild, Connected and Diverse: A Biodiversity Strategy for Toronto. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2019/ie/bgrd/background�le-136906.pdf  City of Vaughan. (2024). Woodland Management Strategy. https://www.vaughan.ca/sites/default/�les/2024-03/Woodland%20Management%20Strategy.pdf  Ministry of Natural Resources. (2012). A Guide to Stewardship Planning for Natural Areas. Government of Ontario. https://�les.elfsightcdn.com/02873a1a-8bd7-433b-8910-a4f80f9814b4/50a7d2cc-abb2-43af- aefe-37a03a0ae412.pdf Ontario Nature. (2014). Best Practices Guide to Natural Heritage Systems Planning. Natural Heritage System. Nova Scotia Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 141 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 142 https://ontarionature.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/nhs-guide-web-1.pdf  Ontario Woodlot Association. (n.d.-a). List of landowner guides [website]. https://www.ontariowoodlot.com/Landowner-Guides  Ontario Woodlot Association. (n.d.-b). A Landowner's Guide to Forest Management Basics. https://�les.elfsightcdn.com/02873a1a-8bd7-433b-8910-a4f80f9814b4/4c535b6c- ea56-48bd-8dec-74257c03245e/A-Landowners-Guide-To-Forest-Management-Basics-PRINT_2021.pdf  Postma, Madison. Assessing The Introduction And Age Of The Acer Platanoides (Norway Maple) Invasion Within Wilket Creek Ravine In Toronto, Ontario. Puric-Mladenovic, D. and Baird, K. (2017). Natural areas monitoring in the City of Guelph: Emerald Ash Borer impact on ash populations in natural areas. Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. 76 pp. https://guelph.ca/wp-content/uploads/VSPGuelphReport_March3_2017.pdf Rouge National Urban Park. (2024). Park management plan - Rouge National Urban Park. Parks Canada. https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/on/rouge/info/gestion-management/gestion- management-2019#PartB  Canadian Model Forest Network. (n.d.). The Value of a Woodlot Management Plan. Government of Canada. https://www.nswooa.ca/uploads/5/9/6/9/59690537/the_value_of_a_woodlot_management_plan.pdf Carpentier, S., Filotas, E., Handa, I. T., & Messier, C. (2017). Trade-offs between timber production, carbon stocking and habitat quality when managing woodlots for multiple ecosystem services. Environmental Conservation, 44(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892916000357  Duinker, P ., Lehvävirta, S., Busse Nielsen, A., and Toni, S. A. (2017). Chapter 34 – Urban woodlots and their management. In Ferrini, F., Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C.C., & Fini, A. (Eds.). (2017). Routledge Handbook of Urban Forestry (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315627106   Invasive Species Council (ISC). (n.d.). Common Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica). https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/invasive-species/meet-the-species/invasive-plants/buckthorn/  Miller, R.W. & Hauer, Richard & Werner, Les. (2015). Urban Forestry Planning and Managing Urban Greenspaces (third ed.).  O’Brien, J. (2019). Impacts of Urban Forest Structure on Bat Populations in Kitchener, Ontario. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/93330  Prevost, G. (2018). Victoria Park Woodlot Management Plan, Cambridge, ON. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 142 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 143 http://hdl.handle.net/1807/81362  Puric-Mladenovic, D. (2016). Vegetation Sampling Protocol (VSP). Forests and Settled Urban Landscapes. http://forests-settled-urban-landscapes.org/VSP/    Rakika, R. (2020). Observed Differences in Woodland Characteristics of Fenced vs Unfenced Woodlands in Mississauga, Ontario. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/99053  Ricketts-Moncur, G. (2020). Indicators of Natural Cover Quality: Management Applications in the City of Toronto. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/99054  Shakespeare, M. (2020). The Current State of Natural Succession of Pine Plantations at Huron Natural Area. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/99297  Tucket, A. S. (2013). A Plant Ecological Study and Management Plan for Mogale’s Gate Biodiversity Centre, Gauteng. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Environmental Management, University Of South Africa. https://core.ac.uk/download/43174396.pdf  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 143 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 144 Emergency Preparedness Emergency preparedness in urban forestry is crucial for protecting trees and woodlands, as well as the communities that rely on them. As Canadian cities face increasing threats from natural disasters, including wild�res, �ooding, extreme heat, and the spread of pests and diseases, it is essential that urban forestry practices not only focus on routine maintenance but also on preparedness and resilience.  The eastern Canadian ice storm of 1998, the Emerald Ash Borer impact and spread, the Derecho storm (Ontario, May 21, 2022), Hurricane Juan (Nova Scotia, September 29, 2003), and the BC �res of 2003 starkly illustrated the need for municipalities to integrate emergency preparedness and disaster management into urban forest management plans. Emergency preparedness helps minimize damage, ensures public safety, and allows for the planning and implementation of recovery after an emergency (Public Safety Canada, 2022a). Highlights Increased Risk Natural disasters such as �oods, extreme weather, high temperatures, �res, pests, and diseases are increasing in Canada. Disaster preparedness Must be built into urban forest management plans to ensure resilience in the face of disasters and emergencies. Management and mitigation Preventative methods like risk assessment and planning, mapping high-risk areas, monitoring efforts, and proactive maintenance. Canadian strategies and policies Emphasize the importance of governance and coordination among different levels of government and emergency services. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 144 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 145 Incorporating disaster management into urban forest management includes several key components that are preventive and responsive. Preventive measures involve risk assessment, planning, and prevention. Risk assessment includes identifying vulnerabilities and mapping high-risk areas using inventory and monitoring data, while planning and prevention actions include tree inventories, health monitoring, proactive tree maintenance (e.g., pruning), and infrastructural protection (e.g., managing trees near power lines). Responsive actions involve implementing response plans and coordinating emergency and recovery efforts. This includes collaboration with emergency response and land management agencies, public communication, and post-event assessments (e.g., identifying damaged trees). Recovery efforts should focus on replanting, restoration, and re�ning strategies to improve future preparedness (US Forest Service, n.d.; Smart Trees Paci�c, 2013a; Huff, E. et al., 2020). Comprehensive emergency response plans should also include preventative and responsive measures that prioritize the safety of workers and the public during and after emergencies (The Arborist Safe Work Practices (ASWP), 2023). Management and Mitigation Strategies Municipalities should allocate adequate resources in their budgets for disaster preparedness, including funding for specialized training for urban forestry personnel. Training should cover the safe handling of hazardous situations, such as downed power lines or unstable trees, and the implementation of health and safety protocols. Furthermore, regular drills and simulations can help ensure that personnel are well- prepared to respond swiftly and effectively when disaster strikes (Government of Canada, 2024b). Cities should also invest in human resources dedicated to disaster management within the urban forestry sector. This includes roles focused on risk assessment and emergency planning, and public education on the importance of tree care in disaster mitigation (Konijnendijk et al., 2021). Collaboration with local agencies, utilities, and community organizations is also crucial to ensure a uni�ed response during emergencies. Canadian strategies and policies also emphasize the importance of governance and coordination among different levels of government and emergency services. For instance, the Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy (Canadian Council of Forest Ministers, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 145 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 146 2016) outlines a coordinated approach to wild�re management, while Public Safety Canada (Public Safety Canada, 2022b) provides guidelines for emergency management that include urban forestry considerations. Municipalities can also bene�t from provincial programs like Ontario’s Forest Health Protection Program (Government of Ontario, n.d.), which supports the management of pest and disease outbreaks [see chapter: Insects and Diseases]. Integrating disaster management into urban forest management plans is a necessity. Many municipal urban forest management plans include a section on emergency preparedness. Municipalities should aim to adopt robust strategies, policies, and practices so that cities can better protect their urban forests and, by extension, their communities from the growing risks posed by natural disasters. Resources Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. (2016). Canadian Wildland Fire Strategy: A 10-year review and renewed call to action. https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/37108.pdf  Government of Canada. (2005). Canadian wildland �re strategy: a vision for an innovative and integrated approach to managing the risks - a report to the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers, prepared by the Canadian Wildlife Fire Strategy Assistant Deputy Ministers Task Group: Fo134-1/2005E-PDF. Government of Canada Publications. https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.687948/publication.html  Government of Canada. (2024a). National Risk Pro�le: A national emergency preparedness and awareness tool. Public Safety Canada. https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2023-nrp-pnr/2023-npr-pnr-en.pdf  Government of Canada. (2024b). Health and Safety Program - General elements. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/basic.html  Hartel, D. (2015). Urban Forests: Building resilience to natural disasters. Urban Forestry South. https://urbanforestrysouth.org/resources/presentations/2015%20USDN%20Urban%20Forests%20- %20Resiliency%20and%20Response%20to%20Natural%20Disasters%20-18Feb15%20v1.0.pdf  Hartel, D. (2019). Disaster Recovery Steps to Maintain and Improve Urban Forest Resilience. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/gtr/gtr-nrs-p-185papers/17-hartel_gtr_nrs-p-185.pdf  Canadian National Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 146 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 147 Mihychuk, M. (2018). From The Ashes: Reimagining Fire Safety and Emergency Management in Indigenous Communities. In 42nd Parliament, 1st session. Standing Committee on Indigenous and Northern Affairs. https://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/421/INAN/Reports/RP9990811/inanrp15/inanrp15- e.pdf  Public Health Agency of Canada. (2023). Creating the Conditions for Resilient Communities: A Public Health Approach to Emergencies. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/phac-aspc/documents/corporate/publications/chief-public- health-o�cer-reports-state-public-health-canada/state-public-health-canada-2023/report/report.pdf  Public Safety Canada. (2017). An Emergency Management Framework for Canada (3 ed.). https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2017-mrgnc-mngmnt-frmwrk/index-en.aspx  Public Safety Canada. (2022a). Emergency Management Strategy for Canada: Toward a resilient 2030. https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/mrgncy-mngmnt-strtgy/index-en.aspx  Public Safety Canada. (2022b). Emergency management. https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/mrgnc-mngmnt/index-en.aspx  Public Safety Canada. (2024). Advancing the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Emergency Management Strategy: Areas for Action (2024th ed.). https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2024-ems-ctn-rs/ems-ctn-rs-en.pdf  Workplace Safety & Prevention Services. (2023). Arborist Industry Safe Work Practices Guide. https://www.wsps.ca/resource-hub/guides/arborist-industy-safe-work-practices-guide  City of Edmonton. (2021). Urban Forest Asset Management Plan. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PDF/Urban-Forest-Asset- Management-Plan.pdf  Temmer, J., Smith, R., & Terton, A. (2017). Building a Climate-Resilient City: Disaster preparedness and emergency management. Prairie Climate Centre. https://www.edmonton.ca/public-�les/assets/document?path=PDF/Paper9-pcc-brief-disaster- mangement-emergency-preparedness.pdf  Town of Banff. (2019). Town of Banff Strategic Plan 2019-2022. https://banff.ca/DocumentCenter/View/6102/Banff-Strategic-Plan-2019-2022  Town of Banff. (2022). Strengthening Emergency Management and Wild�re Preparedness. https://banff.ca/DocumentCenter/View/9510/Strengthening-Emergency-Management-and-Wild�re- Preparedness-Tactics  rd Canadian Provincial Alberta British Columbia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 147 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 148 British Columbia FireSmart. (2022). Community Wild�re Resiliency Plan Instruction Guide. Community Wild�re Resiliency Plan (pp. 3–60). https://www.ubcm.ca/sites/default/�les/2022-11/ LGPS_CRI_FCFS%202022CWRPInstruction%20Guide.pdf  British Columbia Firesmart. (2024). British Columbia Community Wild�re Resiliency Plan Instruction Guide. https://www.ubcm.ca/sites/default/�les/2024-06/ LGPS_CRI_FCFS_2024_CWRP_Instruction_Guide_2024-06.pdf  Government of British Columbia. (2016). BC Wild�re Service Mandate & Strategy - Province of British Columbia. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wild�re-status/about-bcws/governance/mandate- strategy  Town of Gibsons. (2024). Gibsons Takes a Green Step Forward with First-Ever Urban Forest Plan. Town of Gibsons. https://gibsons.ca/2024/01/08/gibsons-takes-a-green-step-forward-with-�rst-ever-urban-forest-plan/  Government of Nova Scotia. (2021). Impact of Hurricane Juan on woodlands and parks of central Nova Scotia. https://novascotia.ca/natr/forestry/programs/ecosystems/juan/ Burt, J. (2022). Guidelines For a Municipal Forest Fire Emergency Plan. Municipality of Northern Bruce Peninsula. https://www.northbrucepeninsula.ca/media/5qniaebz/schedule-e-2022-guidelines-for-forest-�re- emergency-plan-�nal-1.pdf  City of Guelph. (2024). Urban Forest Management Plan. https://guelph.ca/plans-and-strategies/urban-forest-management-plan/  City of Kitchener. (2019). It’s a Tree’s Life: Kitchener’s Sustainable Urban Forest Strategy 2019-2028. https://www.kitchener.ca/en/resourcesGeneral/Documents/INS_PARKS_Urban_Forest_Strategy.pdf  City of Markham. (2017). City of Markham Emergency Response Plan. https://www.markham.ca/wps/wcm/connect/markham/d4bb8e1c-c668-491c-92a4-03498088719a/ markham-emergency-plan.pdf City of Toronto. (2021). City of Toronto Emergency Plan. https://www.toronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/9740-Emergency-Plan-2020-Update-2021-01-21- AODA-Compliance.pdf  Emergency Management Ontario. (2021). Emergency Management Framework for Ontario. Emergency Management Framework for Ontario (pp. 1–45). Nova Scotia Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 148 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 149 https://�les.ontario.ca/books/solgen-emo-emergency-management-framework-2021- en-2021-12-30.pdf  Government of Ontario. (n.d.). Forest health conditions. https://www.ontario.ca/page/forest-health-conditions  Town of Oakville. (2020). 2020 Urban Forest Strategic Management Plan. https://www.oakville.ca/getmedia/fce78d07-771f-4f6a-b65c-fb2d5e7da152/urban-forest-strategic- management-plan.pdf  International Rainy-Lake of the Woods Watershed Board. (2019). Review of environmental emergency planning, preparedness and response in the boundary waters of the Rainy-Lake of the Woods Drainage Basin. International Joint Commission. https://ijc.org/sites/default/�les/2019-03/RLWWB-EEPPR_in_the_RLOW_basin_March_2019_0.pdf  Smart Trees Paci�c. (2013a). Urban Forestry Emergency Operations Planning Guide for Storm Response. https://vibrantcitieslab.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Urban-Forestry-Emergency-Operations- Planning-Guide.pdf  Smart Trees Paci�c. (2013b). Urban Forestry Emergency Operations Planning Guide for Storm Response. https://smarttreespaci�c.org/past-projects/urbanforestryeop  Sustainable Forestry Initiative. (2022). SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Guidance. SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Guidance (p. 2). https://forests.org/wp-content/uploads/Guidance-for-SFI-Urban-and-Community-Forest-Sustainability- Standard-Second-Draft.pdf  US Forest Service. (n.d.). Emergency Response and Preparedness. https://www.fs.usda.gov/inside-fs/emergency-response-preparedness  USDA Forest Service. (2013). Urban Forestry Emergency Operations Planning Guide for Storm Response. Urban Forestry South. https://urbanforestrysouth.org/resources/library/ttresources/urban-forestry-emergency-operations- planning-guide-for-storm-response  Huff, E., Johnson, M., Roman, L., Sonti, N., Pregitzer, C., Campbell, L., & McMillen, H. (2020). A Literature Review of Resilience in Urban Forestry. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 46(3), 185–196. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2020.014  Kenney, W. A., van Wassenaer, P . J. E., & Satel, A. L. (2011). Criteria and Indicators for Strategic Urban Forest Planning and Management. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry (AUF), 37(3), 108-117. Retrieved from https://auf.isa-arbor.com/content/isa/37/3/108.full.pdf  Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 149 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 150 Konijnendijk, C., Nesbitt, L., & Wirtz, Z. (2021). Urban Forest governance in the face of Pulse Disturbances —Canadian Experiences. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 47(6), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2021.023  Ordóñez, C., & Duinker, P . (2014). Assessing the vulnerability of urban forests to climate change. Environmental Reviews, 22(3), 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2013-0078  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 150 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 151 Enabling Legislation, Municipal By-laws and Regulations Urban areas, though they make up about 1% of the land base in Canada, are home to over 80% of the population and taxpayers. Urban areas and their populations serve various national and provincial interests, yet there is no national urban forest legislation, and existing local-level policies are decentralized. As a result, urban forest policy in Canada is fragmented among municipalities and exists without signi�cant involvement from upper levels of government (Kenney 2003; Barker and Kenney 2012). Thus, most urban forest policies are not determined by provincial or national governments, but by municipalities (Hudson, 2014). With decentralized governance across three levels of government, urban forest protection and management decisions are largely made at the municipal level.  Urban forest policies and management are complicated due to the variety of land ownership in urban areas, the shifts in rights and responsibilities, and the intersection of land use policies and planning regulations. In response to public pressure, some municipalities take a proactive approach to protecting trees and urban forests, while Highlights Urban forest policy in Canada Lacking at the provincial and federal levels. Municipal urban forest management Complicated and fragmented among municipalities with a wide range of departments, titles, and responsibilities. Municipal tree bylaws Used to guide urban forest management, planning, governance, and legislation. Public and private tree bylaws Used to regulate tree-related activities such as maintenance, planting, inspection, monitoring, and removal. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 151 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 152 others adopt a more reactive stance, prioritizing development over environmental preservation. Urban tree legislation and bylaws can vary greatly between municipalities and across geographic areas; these differing bylaws and levels of management have been captured in a 2018 project that measures the footprint of urban forestry in Canada (Puric-Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2023a, b). This tool serves as a resource for small and large municipalities looking to start new or develop upon existing urban forestry programs. Municipal urban forestry programs have a wide variety of management areas and responsibilities, such as managing street trees, removing hazardous trees, and planting trees in new subdivisions. There are various policies relating to trees and urban forests, all of which are adopted by municipalities as tools to aid in protecting trees and regulating the injury of trees. There are nine major areas of municipal policy related to trees and urban forests in Canada: (1) policy related to tree permit (e.g., tree removal permit, tree harvesting permit, and certi�cate of authorization), (2) policy related to standards of trees in new subdivisions (e.g., development speci�cations, landscape screening, shoreline buffer), (3) policy related to tree planting guidelines, (4) policy related to the choice of tree species (e.g., the list of recommended/prohibited tree species), (5) policy related to boulevard trees, (6) policy related to commemorative trees, (7) policy related to protection of heritage trees and natural heritage, (8) policy related to planting of native trees, and (9) policy related to planting of shade trees (Puric-Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2023a). Municipal Bylaws Tree bylaws are created by municipalities and implemented within municipal boundaries. Tree bylaws support safe, sustainable, and legal tree-related activities in Canada and are often written in accordance with private property laws and city- curated forest management and land use plans. For example, tree bylaws state prohibited activities, exemptions, permit requirements, and rule enforcement through necessary processes, �xed �nes and penalties (City of Guelph, 2010). Tree bylaws, depending on their implications, are under different provincial acts. Oftentimes, municipal plans also include provisions for public engagement in tree-related policy (CEN, n.d.). In British Columbia, the Community Charter acts as an “umbrella regulation,” and in Ontario, the Municipal Act of 2001 empowers municipalities to Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 152 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 153 enact tree bylaws. In Newfoundland, the New Urban and Rural Planning Act is the enabling legislation that establishes the province’s land use planning system; it allows the preparation of a range of planning, grant approval, and implementation documents, and provides public input and appeal processes whereby development decisions can be subjected to independent review (De Santis, 2020). This Act serves as an umbrella regulation to manage urban and rural planning (Puric-Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2023). The study by Puric-Mladenovic and Bardekjian (2023b) shows that there is a wide range of bylaws pertaining to trees in Canadian municipalities. Over one-�fth (22.8%) of the surveyed municipalities in 2018 had enacted private tree bylaws in response to the municipal need to regulate the injury and removal of trees. Of the surveyed municipalities, 18.3% have public/street tree bylaws. As expected, most of the 146 Canadian municipalities that have enacted public tree bylaws are in the more urbanized provinces, such as Ontario (26%), followed by British Columbia (24%) and Quebec (17%). Of the 182 municipalities that have private tree bylaws, the majority are in Quebec (57.7%), followed by British Columbia (22%) and Ontario (13.7%).  A recent study revealed that in Ontario, more populous municipalities tend to have more tree by-laws, suggesting the in�uence of various factors such as more available funding, stronger political will, higher capacity for compliance and enforcement, and increased public pressure (Yung, 2018). Additionally, the study highlighted signi�cant variation in the types of tree bylaws and policies across municipalities in Ontario. This variability re�ects a reactive and fragmented approach to tree protection, with each municipality adopting its own unique strategies and regulations. Public tree bylaws control activities on public property and city operations, such as hydro utility practices, landscaping activities, pest management, construction, and residential, industrial, and commercial development planning (City of Edmonton, 2019). Private tree bylaws regulate tree-related activities on private property, such as tree-cutting, tree removal, tree topping (removal of large portions of a tree’s crown), and building practices (Conway et al., 2022). Some municipalities such as Prince George’s County in Maryland, USA, have tree canopy replacement bylaws, where several trees must be planted to supplement the removal of large amounts of canopy or large old trees (Dalke & Hawkins-Nixon, 2012), These “no net loss” or “net gain” Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 153 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 154 bylaws help preserve and even increase urban canopy cover while still allowing regular tree maintenance and removal when necessary. Municipalities are also increasingly acknowledging the value of woodlands, biodiversity, wildlife habitats, and ecosystem services through their tree bylaws. For instance, the City of Peterborough’s Tree Conservation Bylaw (By-Law Number 17-120) explicitly recognizes the environmental, aesthetic, and public health bene�ts of trees. The bylaw also regulates the destruction and injury of trees on private property. Similarly, the Town of Orangeville’s Urban Forestry Policy highlights the environmental, economic, and health bene�ts provided by urban trees (Yung, 2018). In Quebec, many municipalities have adopted bylaws requiring permits and certi�cates for tree-related maintenance, which have explicit provisions regarding the “obligation of obtaining a certi�cate of authorization to fell a tree”. In Ontario, 23.2% of municipalities (103 out of 444) had speci�c tree policies in 2018. These policies cover a wide range of disciplines and municipal departments, such as Guidelines for Trees and Landscaping, Speci�cations for the Planting of Municipal Trees and Shrubs, and Tree Preservation and Clearing Guidelines for New Developments (Puric- Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2023b). However, 74.5% of Ontario municipalities (331 out of 444) did not have tree bylaws in 2018. In 2018, in Quebec, 44.2% of municipalities (106 out of 240) had tree bylaws (either private or public). The tree bylaw has been enacted as part of a zoning bylaw, which regulates tree cutting and plantation in both urban (e.g., residential areas) and industrial settings. Such bylaws set out the regulations and guidelines for tree felling or planting, which require owners to apply for a tree permit or certi�cate of authorization. In Quebec, a bylaw to stop the spread of Emerald Ash Borer has been passed in recent years, and about 8% of municipalities (19 out of 240) in Quebec had such bylaws in 2018.  In Saskatchewan, about 26% of municipalities (6 out of 23) have adopted the Urban Forestry Bylaw or Urban Tree Policy Rules and Regulations Bylaw. There are provincial regulations regarding urban trees (e.g., Dutch Elm Disease Regulations in Saskatchewan), which result in more standardized urban forestry programs (such as Dutch Elm Management Programs across the province). All of these bylaws and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 154 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 155 regulations are essential to the maintenance and management of urban trees and forests in Canada.  Resources Canadian Environmental Network (CEN). (n.d.). - Progressive policy through public participation: https://www.rcen.ca/en/home  Green Municipal Fund – Factsheet: An urban forestry overview: https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/resources/factsheet-urban-forestry-overview Webber, K., Le Geyt, M., O’Neill, M., and Murugesan, V. (2020). Guiding Urban Forestry Policy into the Next Decade: A Private Tree Protection & Management Practice Guide. https://council.cleanairpartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Practice-Guide_2020.pdf City of Calgary. (n.d.). Tree protection bylaw. https://www.calgary.ca/bylaws/tree-protection.html  City of Edmonton. (2019). Policy number C501A: Integrated pest management. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/PoliciesDirectives/C501A.pdf City of Edmonton. (2024). City Of Edmonton Bylaw 14600: Community Standards Bylaw. https://www.edmonton.ca/sites/default/�les/public-�les/assets/Bylaws/C14600.pdf City of Edmonton. (n.d.). Tree regulations. https://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/bylaws/tree-regulations  City of Burnaby. (n.d.). City of Burnaby Tree Bylaw Brochure. https://www.burnaby.ca/sites/default/�les/acquiadam/2022-12/Tree%20Bylaw%20FAQ.pdf  City of Kelowna. (2005). Bylaw #4082: Municipal properties tree bylaw. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/SUMMARY-.pdf City of Vancouver. (2023). Protection Of Trees Bylaw No. 9958. https://bylaws.vancouver.ca/9958c.PDF Canadian National Canadian Provincial Alberta British Columbia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 155 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 156 District of North Vancouver. (2012). Bylaw 7671: Protecting trees. https://dnv-docs.simplicitycms.ca/documents/Bylaw%207671.pdf District of Saanich. (2024). Urban forest strategy 2024-2034. https://www.saanich.ca/assets/Community/Documents/ Environment/240726_SaanichUFS_8_online.pdf City of Winnipeg. (n.d.). Trees and environment. https://www.winnipeg.ca/services-programs/trees-environment City of Fredericton. (2020). Bylaw No. L-18: A bylaw for the management of trees within the city of Fredericton. https://www.fredericton.ca/en/media/�le/lawnol-18-consolidatedpdf City of St. John’s. (n.d.). City of St. John’s Landscape Development Policy. https://www.stjohns.ca/en/building-development/resources/Construction/Landscape-Development- Policy_Street-Tree-Planting-Standards.pdf City of Halifax. (2008). Halifax Regional Municipality Bylaw Number T-600: By-law respecting trees on public lands. https://www.halifax.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/city-hall/legislation-by-laws/By-LawT-600.pdf City of Guelph. (2010). Guelph Municipal Code – Tree protection bylaw. https://guelph.ca/wp-content/uploads/TreeBylaw.pdf City of Kingston. (n.d.). Tree bylaws and permits. https://www.cityofkingston.ca/bylaws-and-animal-services/commonly-requested-bylaws/tree-bylaw- and-permits/ City of Kitchener. (2002). Policy number I-1160: Tree management policy. https://www.kitchener.ca/en/resourcesGeneral/Documents/INS_OPS_Treemanagementpolicy.pdf  City of London. (2022). Bylaw number C.P .-1555-252: Tree protection bylaw. Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland & Labrador Nova Scotia Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 156 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 157 https://london.ca/by-laws/consolidated-tree-protection-law City of Mississauga. (2022). Private Tree Protection Bylaw 0021-2022. https://www.mississauga.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/30121717/Private-Tree-Protection-By- law-0021-2022.pdf  Environmental Commissioner of Ontario. (2018). Back to Basics – 2018 Environmental Protection Report, p.252. https://www.auditor.on.ca/en/content/reporttopics/envreports/env18/Back-to-Basics.pdf  Filson, F. (2018). Municipal Tree Conservation in Southern Ontario. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Rural Planning and Development, University of Guelph. https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/231546b3-f2ad-4c8f-a694-42617be51f34/ content  Government of Ontario. (n.d.). Document 3 - Tree Bylaws in other Ontario Municipalities - Precedent Review. https://pub-ottawa.escribemeetings.com/�lestream.ashx?documentid=25503  Government of Ontario. (2024). Forest management policies. https://www.ontario.ca/page/forest-management-policies  Government of Prince Edward Island. (n.d.). Forest Enhancement Program (FEP): Forestry Services for Private Forest Land Owners. https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/service/forest-enhancement-program-fep-forestry-services-for- private-forest-land-owners  Government of Prince Edward Island. (n.d.). Trees and planting. https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/topic/trees-and-planting Ville de Montréal. (2002). Master Plan Part III Section 5.6: Trees. http://ville.montreal.qc.ca/portal/page?_pageid=2762,3101464&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL  Ville de Pointe-Claire. (2015). Bylaw Number Pc-2825: Bylaw Concerning the Protection of Public Trees. https://www.pointe-claire.ca/content/uploads/2016/05/PC-2825_Protection_arbres_EN.pdf City of Saskatoon. (2024). Bylaw no. 9957: The Tree Protection Bylaw. https://www.saskatoon.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/city-clerk/bylaws/9957.pdf City of Weyburn. (2018). Bylaw no. 2018-3373: Preservation of city tree policy. Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 157 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 158 https://weyburn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/2018-3373-Urban-Forestry-Bylaw.pdf Cities4Forests. (2019). Urban Forests for Healthier Cities: Policy, Planning, Regulations, and Institutional Arrangements. https://cities4forests.com/resource/urban-forests-for-healthier-cities-policy-planning-regulations-and- institutional-arrangements/introduction-to-regulations-for-urban-forests/  Dalke, S. and Hawkins-Nixon, D. (2012). No Net Loss Tree Conservation Regulation and Policy to Maintain and Expand Street Tree Canopy and Forest as a Land Cover. https://www.princegeorgescountymd.gov/sites/default/�les/media-document/ SD%2012_%20NO%20NET%20TREE%20LOSS%203V2.pdf  Food and Agriculture Association of the United Nations (2016). Forestry Paper 178 – Guidelines on urban and peri-urban forestry. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9c27d98b-8071-4ee7-8fc4-e0b430f8a8dc/ content Norza, J. (2022). Green Laws and urban forestry — which countries are in the lead? Lampoon Magazine, 29. https://lampoonmagazine.com/article/2022/01/01/green-laws-urban-forestry/ USDA Forest Service. (2005). Urban Forestry – A Manual for the State Forestry Agencies in the Southern Region. https://www.fao.org/uploads/media/ Urban%20forestry%20manual_urban%20forestry%20and%20public%20policy.pdf  Andresen, J. W. (1977). Urban Forestry Legislation in Ontario. The Forestry Chronicle, 53(5), 291-293. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc53291-5   Barker, E. J. and Kenney, W. A. (2012). Urban forest management in small Ontario municipalities. The Forestry Chronicle, 88, 118-123. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc2012-027 Conway, T.M., Khatib, J.K., Tetreult, J., & Almas, A.D. (2022). A Private Tree Bylaw’s Contribution to Maintaining a Diverse Urban Forest: Exploring Homeowners’ Replanting Compliance and the Role of Construction Activities in Toronto, Canada. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 48(1), 9-26. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2022.002 Conway, T.M. and Urbani, L. (2007). Variations in municipal urban forestry policies: A case study of Toronto, Canada. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 6(3), 181-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2007.07.003 Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 158 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 159 De Santis, J. (2020). Impact of Residential Intensi�cation on Urban Forest in the Long Branch Neighbourhood, Toronto. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/99002   Hudson, B. (2014). Institutions, law, and the political ecology of urban forests: A comparative approach. In: Urban Forests, Trees, and Greenspace - A Political Ecology Perspective. Publisher: Routledge, Editors: Sandberg, A. L., Bardekijan, A., Butt, S., Pages 61-76. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315882901 Kenney, W. A. (2003). A strategy for Canada's urban forests. The Forestry Chronicle, 79, 785-789. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc79785-4 Puric-Mladenovic, D. and Bardekjian, A. (2023a). Canada's Urban Forest Footprint: Mapping the Extent and Intensity of Urban Forestry Activities. Forests in Settled & Urban Landscapes applied science and research lab. Daniels Faculty, University of Toronto. John H. Daniels Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Design, University of Toronto. http://forests-settled-urban-landscapes.org/UrbanForestryFootprint/ Puric-Mladenovic, D. and Bardekjian, A. C. (2023b). Canada’s Urban Forestry Footprint. https://utoronto.maps.arcgis.com/apps/dashboards/21acf59a306d41dd862c4e6ba25a0da0  Yung, Y. K. (2018). State of Urban Forest Policy and By-laws across Ontario Municipalities. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/81308   Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 159 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 160 Tree Protection During Construction and Conflict with Building Foundations Tree Protection & Construction In urban areas, there is often competition between development activities and trees due to a lack of available growing space. Urban trees are frequently impacted by infrastructural maintenance, underground utility expansion, or building construction. When construction is close to or within tree root zones, soil removal, trenching, heavy machinery, and repeated foot tra�c cause soil compaction and root damage (Despot Highlights Construction severely impacts urban trees Activities like excavation, trenching, and machinery use near trees can cause soil compaction and root damage, often leading to long-term tree health decline or death. Tree damage often shows years later Signs of decline from construction damage (like canopy dieback or pest vulnerability) may not appear immediately and can take years to manifest, especially under added environmental stress like drought. Proactive tree protection is essential Pre-construction tree assessments and protection plans (e.g., barriers, bylaws, root zones) signi�cantly improve tree survival and urban canopy integrity. Urban trees and infrastructure can conflict Trees planted too close to buildings can damage foundations and pavements, particularly when root growth is stimulated by moisture in structural cracks. Soil type matters In clay soils, trees near structures can exacerbate soil movement and settlement, making proper tree species selection and planting distance critical to avoid damage. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 160 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 161 & Gerhold, 2003). Sometimes, unintended movements by heavy machinery can also result in mechanical damage to the above-ground tree parts. For example, common construction activities such as paving, sidewalk (re)installations, excavation, trenching, and roadway widening involve various machinery that can severely affect the existing trees (Despot & Gerhold, 2003). Without adequate protection during construction, trees can be damaged, leading to a decline in tree health, which can be deadly. In worst cases, these injuries can lead to functional and structural damages that appear as weak foliage, canopy decline, rot and decay, or even tree death (Hauer et al., 2020; North et al., 2017). Damage to roots caused by compaction can impact tree access to water and nutrients, ultimately compromising its health, longevity, and ability to recover (Fini et al., 2020). In many cases, tree decline and death can take years to become apparent (Fini et al., 2020). It has been documented that trees in construction zones experience a higher annual mortality rate and have worse tree health than trees not impacted by construction (Hauer et al., 2020; Hilbert et al., 2019). Trees previously exposed to construction damage are also more vulnerable to other environmental and biological stressors. For instance, a tree stressed during construction may not exhibit obvious signs of decline until a period of drought occurs, causing crown defoliation and eventually other health problems like dieback, limb loss, and increased susceptibility to insects and disease (Fini et al., 2020). This might appear as a sudden decline, but due to root reduction from construction impacts, the already-stressed tree has limited access to water, oxygen, and nutrients and can no longer handle additional environmental stress. However, the rate of post-construction tree decline depends on many factors such as the age of trees, tree species, the extent and nature of damage, the health of the tree prior to construction, and care given after construction is complete (North et al., 2017; Fini et al., 2020).  Evaluation of green space and trees, as well as implementing strategies to save and protect urban trees, should be a critical part of urban development. An assessment should be completed before starting construction to ensure the conservation and preservation of existing trees and, thus, maintain the urban forest canopy and its integrity. Studies have shown that investing in tree protection for mature trees positively impacts the overall tree canopy within urban environments (Benson, Koeser, & Morgenroth, 2019a). Urban forest studies continuously re�ne tree Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 161 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 162 protection recommendations based on emerging root damage and tree health studies. For example, Benson et al. (2019a) recommend providing a protection zone 15 times the diameter of the tree in question to ensure tree health. Not only do mature trees add to the aesthetic value of public spaces, but they also provide ecosystem and infrastructural services that cannot be easily replaced (Hotte et al., 2015). However, questions always remain about the appropriate extent of the tree protection zone, and this type of research continues to advance relevant knowledge (Benson et al., 2019a; City of Toronto, 2016; Matheny & Clark, 1998).  Best management practices to protect trees during construction include construction-speci�c tree protection bylaws, site plans that ensure adequate space for tree roots, and tree, soil, and root protection measures. Many large Canadian municipalities mandate these measures, which are re�ected in protection bylaws, guidelines, and urban forest management plans (Yung, 2018). Tree-protection plans often include physical barriers at a certain distance around trees that typically restrict access to their root zone and stem. These barriers protect the soil around the tree from compaction and can also prevent damage from machinery. Construction documents often detail what can and cannot be done within set distances from each tree (Despot & Gerhold, 2003). Tree protection techniques and guidelines are backed up by research that tracked tree health for years and decades after construction (Hauer et al., 2020; Fini et al., 2020). In special situations where additional expertise is needed, a professional arborist or forester may provide recommendations related to protecting and preserving trees near construction projects.  Trees and Building Foundations Many urban trees are planted too close to buildings or other gray infrastructure. This could be due to lack of space, lack of knowledge of how trees will develop over time, planning designs that disregard trees as living and growing organisms, or an inappropriate species or cultivar selection for the given space. As a result, trees often grow in con�ict with structures and have the potential to cause direct or indirect damage to urban structures. An example of direct con�ict between a tree and structure is when a tree trunk or stem grows into a building or a tree root grows into the pavement (Overkeke, 2008; Day, 1991). When tree roots search for water, air, and nutrients, they can grow into undesirable places; intruding root growth is often Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 162 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 163 prompted by existing cracks in the structures or pavement, which allows moisture to seep through. This can be avoided by considering the mature size of a tree prior to planting, including the extent of the root zone, and by selecting the right species for the space (Overkeke, 2008).  Tree roots can contribute to the settling of substrates under and around building foundations. Studies show that a combination of clay soil, proximity of trees to structures, and quality of construction can lead to indirect damage to buildings over time (Navarro et al., 2009; Overkeke, 2008; Day, 1991; Vorwerk, Cameron, & Keppel, 2015). Clay soil is especially prone to shrinking and expanding, which can lead to more movement around buildings as they settle and create a space in which tree roots can develop (Overkeke, 2008; Vorwerk, Cameron, & Keppel, 2015). When trees are planted too close to the foundation, they can add to the amount of water extracted from the soil (clay soil in particular) and lead to more root movement over time. Since the water demands of trees are species-speci�c, the soil type and species should be considered when creating a planting plan. Planting far away from buildings or structures is a good preventative measure in areas with clay soil; the notable exception to this recommendation is for rail tracks and sloped embankments built on clay soils, where vegetation provides necessary stability (Vorwerk, Cameron, & Keppel, 2015). Lastly, as structures with shallow foundations are especially prone to damage, infrastructure solutions such as deeper perimeter foundations are also a helpful preventative measure (Day, 1991).  Resources City of Calgary. (2018). Development Guidelines and Standard Speci�cations: Landscape Construction. https://www.calgary.ca/content/dam/www/pda/pd/documents/urban-development/publications/ landscape-construction.pdf City of Calgary. (n.d.). Tree Protection Plans. https://www.calgary.ca/environment/resources/tree-protection-plans.html  Canadian Provincial Alberta British Columbia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 163 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 164 City of Burnaby. (n.d.). All about our beautiful trees–how we’re protecting them and what you can do to help. Trees. https://www.burnaby.ca/services-and-payments/trees  City of Vancouver. (n.d.). Protection of Trees By-law 9958. https://vancouver.ca/your-government/protection-of-trees-bylaw.aspx  Esquimalt Parks + Recreation. (n.d.). Avoiding Tree Damage During Construction. Township of Esquimalt. https://www.esquimalt.ca/sites/default/�les/docs/parks-recreation/ avoiding_tree_damage_during_construction.pdf  City of Halifax. (2012). Halifax Regional Municipality By-Law Number T-600: By-Law Respecting Trees on Public Lands. Halifax. https://www.halifax.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/city-hall/legislation-by-laws/By-LawT-600.pdf  City of Halifax. (n.d.-a). Tree Protection Zone and Barrier Construction. https://www.halifax.ca/home-property/urban-forestry/tree-protection-construction  City of Halifax. (n.d.-b). Trees and Construction. https://www.halifax.ca/home-property/urban-forestry/tree-protection-construction  City of Ottawa. (2024, February 1). Tree protection (by-law no. 2020-340). Ottawa. https://ottawa.ca/en/living-ottawa/laws-licences-and-permits/laws/laws-z/tree-protection-law- no-2020-340   City of Thunder Bay. (2018). Tree Protection. Tree Protection Standards. https://www.thunderbay.ca/en/city-services/tree-protection-standards.aspx  City of Toronto. (2016). (rep.). Tree Protection Policy and Speci�cations for Construction Near Trees. Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved August 7, 2024, from https://www.toronto.ca/data/parks/pdf/trees/tree-protection-specs.pdf  Webber, K., Le Geyt, M., O’Neill, T., Connors, S. & Murugesan, V. (2019). Tree Protection and Tree Management: A Best Practices and Legislative Review. University of Waterloo. https://uwaterloo.ca/planning/sites/default/�les/uploads/documents/ treeprotectionandtreemanagement_2019.pdf  City of Pleasanton. (n.d.). Pleasanton, CA Tree Preservation Ordinance. Green Policy. https://www.greenpolicy360.net/w/Pleasanton,_CA_Tree_Preservation_Ordinance Nova Scotia Ontario Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 164 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 165 City of Seattle. (n.d.). Seattle Department of Construction & Inspections. Trees & Codes. https://seattle.gov/sdci/codes/codes-we-enforce-(a-z)/trees-and-codes  Dennis, C., & Jacobi, W. R. (2020, August). Protecting Trees During Construction. Colorado State University Extension. https://extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/garden/07420.pdf  Elmendorf, W. (2022, August 30). A Guide to Preserving Trees in Development Projects. Penn State Extension. https://extension.psu.edu/a-guide-to-preserving-trees-in-development-projects  Feeley, C. (2002, May 12). Preventing Construction Damage to Trees. Iowa State University Extension. https://www.extension.iastate.edu/newsrel/2002/may02/may0203.html  International Society of Arboriculture. (n.d.). Avoiding Tree Damage During Construction. International Society of Arboriculture. Retrieved August 7, 2024, from https://dnr.illinois.gov/content/dam/soi/en/web/dnr/conservation/forestry/documents/trees-how-to- information/avoiding-trees.pdf  Benson, A., Koeser, A., & Morgenroth, J. (2019a). Responses of mature roadside trees to root severance treatments. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126448  Benson, A., Koeser, A., & Morgenroth, J. (2019b). A test of tree protection zones: Responses of Quercus virginiana Mill trees to root severance treatments. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 38, 54-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.10.015  Day, R. (1991). Damage of Structures due to Tree Roots. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3828(1991)5:3(200)  Despot, D., Gerhold, H. (2003). Preserving trees in construction projects: Identifying incentives and barriers.Journal of Arboriculture, 29(5), 267-275. https://auf.isa-arbor.com/content/29/5/267  Fini, A., Frangi, P ., Mori, J., Sani, L., Vigevani, I., & Ferrini, F. (2020). Evaluating the effects of trenching on growth, physiology and uprooting resistance of two urban tree species over 51-months. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 53, 126734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126734  Grahn, P ., Stigsdotter, U. (2003). Landscape Planning and Stress. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening,2, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1078/1618-8667-00019  Hauer, R. J., Koeser, A. K., Parbs, S., Kringer, J., Krouse, R., Ottman, K., …Werner, L. P . (2020). Long-term effects and development of a tree preservation program on tree condition, survival, and growth. Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 165 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 166 Landscape and Urban Planning, 193, 103670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103670   Hilbert, D. R., Roman, L. A., Koeser, A. K., Vogt, J. and van Doorn, N. A. (2019). Urban Tree Mortality: A Literature Review. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 45 (5) 167-200. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2019.015  Hotte, N., Barron, S., Cheng, Z., Nesbitt, L., & Cowan, J. (2015). The Social and Economic Values of Canada's Urban Forests: A National Synthesis. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.05.005  Matheny, N. & Clark, J. (1998). Trees and Development: A Technical Guide to Preservation of Trees during Land Development. International Society of Arboriculture. https://wwv.isa-arbor.com/store/product/108/  Navarro, V., Candel, M., Yustres, Á., Alonso, J., & García, B. (2009). Trees, lateral shrinkage and building damage. Engineering Geology, 108(3), 189-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.07.006  Overbeke, C. (2008). Do trees really cause so much damage to property? Journal of Building Appraisal, 3(4), 247-258. https://doi.org/10.1057/jba.2008.6  Sorvig, K. & Thompson, J. W. (2018). Sustainable Landscape Construction: A Guide to Green Building Outdoors (3 ed.). Washington, DC: Island Press. https://link.springer.com/book/10.5822/978-1-61091-811-4  Vorwerk, S., Cameron, D., & Keppel, G. (2015). Chapter 22 - Clay Soil in Suburban Environments: Movement and Stabilization through Vegetation. In B. Indraratna, J. Chu, & C. Rujikiatkamjorn (Eds.), Ground Improvement Case Histories (pp. 655-682): Butterworth-Heinemann. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100191-2.00022-8  Watson, G., Hewitt, A., Custic, M., & Lo, M. (2014). The management of tree root systems in urban and suburban settings: A review of soil in�uence on root growth. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 40(4). https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2014.021  Watson, G., Neely, D. (1995). Trees and Building Sites: Proceedings of an International Conference Held in the Interest of Developing a Scienti�c Basis for Managing Trees in Proximity to Buildings. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, IL. Yung, Y. K. (2018). State of Urban Forest Policy and Bylaws across Ontario Municipalities (thesis). https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/81308  rd Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 166 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 167 Abiotic Stresses Urban trees face numerous abiotic stresses that signi�cantly affect their health, growth, and longevity. These stresses include limited soil volume, soil compaction, air pollution, road salts, heavy metals, drought, mechanical damage, light pollution, and the urban heat island effect, to name a few. The local conditions of urban environments intensify the magnitude of these stressors and their impact on trees. Understanding and managing these cumulative impacts is crucial for the sustainability of urban forests (Collins, 2007). Soil compaction and inadequate soil volume are persistent challenges for trees in built-up areas. Unfavourable soil conditions and limited rooting space negatively impact sustained tree growth and physiological functions due to reduced oxygen, restrained water and nutrient availability. For example, soil compaction increases bulk density and reduces soil pore space, restricting the growth of �ne feeder roots essential for absorbing water and nutrients. In turn, this makes trees more vulnerable to drought and other stressors, which can lead to the premature decline of urban trees over time and threaten the overall health and resilience of the urban forest (Cushing, 2009; Jim, 2023). Highlights Key abiotic stresses Soil compaction, air pollution, de-icing salts, heavy metals, droughts, mechanical damage. Mitigation strategies Green infrastructure solutions, selection of resilient tree species, and regular tree maintenance. Cumulative impacts Multiple abiotic stresses. Management Integrated management, landscape planning, tree planting standards. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 167 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 168 Air pollution, including particulate matter, ozone, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, impacts urban trees by reducing their photosynthetic e�ciency and growth. It has been shown that trees exposed to high levels of air pollution may exhibit symptoms like chlorosis, reduced leaf size, and premature leaf drop, which weaken trees, making them more susceptible to other stresses (Grote, 2016; Moore, 2023). The use of de-icing salts is another stressor that poses a signi�cant threat to urban trees in Canada. Road salts, primarily sodium chloride, accumulate in the soil, leading to osmotic stress and toxicity. Symptoms of excessive road salt on trees include leaf scorch, reduced growth, and even death, particularly in poorly drained areas (Equiza et al., 2017; Government of Canada, 2015). With regards to road salts, reducing salt application, using alternative de-icing materials such as sand, choosing salt-tolerant species, and designing landscapes to minimize salt runoff are effective strategies that help sustain urban forests (Government of Canada, 2015; Transportation Association of Canada (TAC, 2024).  Urban trees, particularly those near tra�c and industrial sites, often accumulate heavy metals in their tissues, causing toxicity and leading to impaired tree growth. These contaminants can reduce growth rates, cause leaf discoloration, stress trees and increase their vulnerability to pests and diseases. Studies have shown that heavy metals like copper, mercury, manganese, nickel, lead, and zinc are found in higher concentrations in the bark of trees growing closer to streets, contributing to long- term physiological stress and reduced growth (Nechita et al., 2021; Yousaf et al., 2020; Kargar, 2013). It is essential to monitor and manage soil quality regularly, remediate contaminated sites when necessary, and select tree species tolerant of pollutants (Nechita et al., 2021) Drought is a common stress in urban areas, especially during summer when water availability is limited. Urban trees, already stressed by poor soil conditions and impermeable surfaces, are more vulnerable to drought, leading to reduced growth, dieback, and mortality. The urban heat island effect exacerbates these conditions by increasing temperatures within urban areas and accelerating water loss through evapotranspiration (Dale & Frank, 2022). This phenomenon is particularly concerning in the context of climate change, which intensi�es heat waves and further stresses urban trees, weakening them and increasing their susceptibility to diseases and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 168 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 169 pests (Duinker et al., 2015; Ziter et al., 2019). Selecting drought-tolerant species, implementing e�cient irrigation, and using mulching improve the water-holding capacity of urban soils and reduce the impact of drought (Saddle Hills County, n.d.). Mechanical damage from construction, vehicular impacts, and improper pruning are also common in urban areas. Such injuries become entry points for pathogens, resulting in decay and structural weakness, which can signi�cantly reduce a tree's lifespan (Krige, 2024). For example, mechanical damage has been identi�ed as a signi�cant threat to the urban forest in Toronto, requiring careful management and mitigation strategies like using physical barriers or fences around trees, pruning trees of concern, and post-construction soil/wound treatment (City of Toronto, 2017; Krige, 2024; Shinwary, 2021; Fraedrich, n.d.). When it comes to reducing mechanical damage, it is essential to implement protective measures, such as tree guards, and to educate the public and professionals about proper tree care practices. Regular inspections and maintenance can also help identify and address mechanical injuries before they lead to more severe issues (City of Toronto, 2017; Krige, 2024; Shinwary, 2021) Some other overlooked stressors include arti�cial light and dog urine. Arti�cial light can disrupt the natural growth cycles of urban trees, interfering with photosynthesis and respiration. It has been shown that excessive light exposure can delay leaf drop, disrupt �owering, and reduce overall vigour, weakening trees and increasing their susceptibility to other stresses (Meng et al., 2022). Using shielded lighting, adjusting light timing, and selecting species less sensitive to light �uctuations can mitigate the effects of light pollution (Meng et al., 2022). Dog urine is an abiotic stressor linked to increasing urban population density and, thus, dog ownership. Studies have shown that though dog urine deposition and "fertilization" are localized due to their high nitrate, ammonium, and phosphorus concentrations, they have a negative impact on soils and trees. Soils impacted by dog urine also have signi�cantly higher salt concentrations (lower osmotic potential), making it harder for trees, especially younger trees, to take up water (De Frenne, 2022).  Strategies like increasing tree canopy cover, using re�ective materials in urban design, and creating green infrastructure that cools the urban environment can be used to mitigate the impact of heat on trees. Green infrastructure solutions, such as Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 169 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 170 rain gardens and permeable pavements, also help reduce heat stress (Dale & Frank, 2022; Ziter et al., 2019). These strategies bene�t trees and improve overall urban livability by reducing heat and improving air quality (Dale & Frank, 2022).  In addition, resilient species that can withstand a range of environmental conditions should be prioritized. Selecting tree species that tolerate urban conditions is crucial. For example, it has been observed that species like Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), Honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), Oak (Quercus spp., and Elm (Ulmus spp.), as well as Kentucky Coffee-tree (Gymnocladus dioicus) and Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra) might show higher resilience against urban stressors like drought, soil compaction, and pollution (Carol-Aristizabal, 2024; Credit Valley Conservation, 2022). Considering the complex interactions between abiotic stresses and the health of urban trees, integrated management and planning approaches are necessary to maintain resilient urban forests. Regular monitoring and adaptive management ensure the long-term sustainability of urban forests. In addition, landscape designs combined with strategic species selection and tree planting standards can help to minimize salt leakage and soil contamination.  Abiotic stressors on trees and tree management within such conditions are considered in urban forest management plans and actions in many Canadian cities [see chapter: Urban Forest Management Planning]. Well-planned management that includes regular maintenance activities, such as pruning, watering during dry periods, and monitoring tree health, is essential for managing the cumulative impacts of abiotic stresses. By implementing best management practices in urban forestry, Canadian cities can ensure that their urban forests continue to provide ecological, social, and economic bene�ts for a longtime. Resources Government of Canada. (2013). Understanding and dealing with interactions between trees, sensitive clay soils and foundations: NH18-24/31-2005E-PDF - Government of Canada Publications - Canada.ca. https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/405406/publication.html  Canadian National Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 170 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 171 Government of Canada. (2015). Road salt injury. https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/diseases/factsheet/49  Transportation Association of Canada (TAC). (2024). Syntheses of Best Practices – Road Salt Management: 1.0 Salt Management Plans (2013) | Transportation Association of Canada (TAC). Transportation Association of Canada (TAC) |. https://www.tac-atc.ca/en/knowledge-centre/technical-resources-search/publications/bp-rsm1-e/  Saddle Hills County. (n.d.). Drought & Trees - Impact, care, and maintenance. https://www.saddlehills.ab.ca/news/posts/drought-trees-impact-care-and-maintenance/  Bellis, E. (2023). Recommendations to improve the health of Vancouver's street trees surrounded by hardscape. University of British Columbia. https://sustain.ubc.ca/sites/default/�les/2023-058_RecommendationsStreetTreehealth_Bellis.pdf  Government of Manitoba. (2016). Manitoba Drought Management Strategy. https://www.gov.mb.ca/sd/pubs/research_data_maps/drought_management_strategy.pdf City of Toronto (2017). Mechanical injuries & other threats. City of Toronto. https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/water-environment/trees/forest-management/mechanical- injuries-and-other-threats/  Credit Valley Conservation. (2022). Urban Tolerant Trees - Credit Valley Conservation. https://cvc.ca/the-garden-post/urban-tolerant-trees/  Government of Ontario. (n.d.). Weather risks: strategies to mitigate the risk of insu�cient moisture. ontario.ca. https://www.ontario.ca/page/weather-risks-strategies-mitigate-risk-insu�cient-moisture  Bassuk, N., Curtis, D. F., Marranca, B. Z., and Neal, B. (2009). Recommended Urban Trees: Site Assessment Canadian Provincial Alberta British Colombia Manitoba Ontario Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 171 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 172 and Tree Selection for Stress Tolerance. Cornell University Department of Horticulture, Ithaca. http://www.hort.cornell.edu/uhi/outreach/recurbtree/pdfs/~recurbtrees.pdf     Davey Tree Expert Company. (2022). Symptoms Of Tree Stress (Plus Treatment). Davey. https://blog.davey.com/signs-and-symptoms-of-tree-stress-plus-treatment/  Duiker, S. W. (2005). Effects of soil compaction. https://extension.psu.edu/effects-of-soil-compaction  Feeley, T. (n.d.). Stress is a Tree Killer. https://www.extension.iastate.edu/news/2007/oct/071901.htm  Fite, K. (n.d.). Simple steps to aid stressed trees. Bartlett Tree Experts. https://www.bartlett.com/resources/simple-steps-to-aid-stressed-trees.pdf  Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. (2022). Environmental impacts of road salt and other deicing chemicals - Minnesota Stormwater Manual. https://stormwater.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/Environmental_impacts_of_road_salt_and_other_de- icing_chemicals  Moore, G. (2023,). Polluted trees: Pollutants and Street Tree Health. Treenet. https://treenet.org/resource/pollutants-and-street-tree-health/  Percivel, G.C. (2017). Abiotic Stress. Routledge Handbook of Urban Forestry, 1, 237-250. ISBN 9781315627106 University of Massachusetts Amherst. (2011). Helping trees to manage stress. Center for Agriculture, Food, and the Environment. https://ag.umass.edu/fact-sheets/helping-trees-to-manage-stress  University of Minnesota. (2018). Soil compaction. UMN Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/soil-management-and-health/soil-compaction  Vogt, S. (2021). Tree stress - Dyck Arboretum. Dyck Arboretum. https://dyckarboretum.org/tree-stress/  Aristizabal, C., & Isabel, M. (2021). Identi�cation of the most damaging environmental pressures for the urban trees of the northeast of North America: a Delphi approach - Dépôt institutionnel de l'UQO. Université du Québec À Montréal. https://di.uqo.ca/id/eprint/1330/  Carol-Aristizabal, M., Dupras, J., Messier, C., & Sousa-Silva, R. (2023). Which tree species best withstand urban stressors? Ask the experts. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 50(1), 57-75. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2023.026  Collins, D. J. (2007). Biotic and abiotic stressors of the urban forest. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 82(6), 1. Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 172 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 173 https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2007.11512312  Cushing, S. P . (2009). Urban tree selection based on environmental stresses and plant responses: development of a selection guide. https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/items/660d70c5-29f0-4a91-ba6f-a8764a00659b  Dale, A. G., & Frank, S. D. (2022). Water availability determines tree growth and physiological response to biotic and abiotic stress in a temperate North American urban forest. Forests, 13(7), 1012. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13071012  De Frenne, P ., Cougnon, M., Janssens, G. P . J., & Vangansbeke, P . (2022). Nutrient fertilization by dogs in peri-urban ecosystems. Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12128  Duinker, P . N., Ordóñez, C., Steenberg, J. W. N., Miller, K. H., Toni, S. A., & Nitoslawski, S. A. (2015). Trees in Canadian cities: indispensable life form for urban sustainability. Sustainability, 7(6), 7379–7396. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7067379  Egerer, M., Schmack, J.M., Vega, K., Ordóñez-Barona, C., and Raum, S. (2024). The challenges of urban street trees and how to overcome them. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 6. https://www-frontiersin-org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/journals/sustainable-cities/articles/10.3389/ frsc.2024.1394056/full  Equiza, M., Calvo-Polanco, M. M., Cirelli, D., Señorans, J., Wartenbe, M., Saunders, C., & Zwiazek, J. (2017). Long-term impact of road salt (NaCl) on soil and urban trees in Edmonton, Canada. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 21, 16–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.11.003  Fraedrich, B. R. (n.d.). Preventing Construction Damage to Trees – Research Laboratory Technical Report. Bartlett Tree Experts. https://www.bartlett.com/resources/preventing-and-mitigating-construction-damage-to-trees.pdf  Grote, R., Samson, R., Alonso, R., Amorim, J. H., Carinanos, P ., Churkina, G., Fares, S., Thiec, D. L., Niinemets, U., Mikkelsen, T. N., Paoletti, E., Tiwary, A., & Calfapietra, C. (2016). Functional traits of urban trees: air pollution mitigation potential. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 14(10), 543–550. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1426  Hauer, R. J., Wei, H., Koeser, A. K., & Dawson, J. O. (2021). Gas Exchange, Water Use E�ciency, and Biomass Partitioning among Geographic Sources of Acer saccharum Subsp. saccharum and Subsp. nigrum Seedlings in Response to Water Stress. Plants, 10(4), 742. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040742  Jim, C. Y. (2022). Rootability con�nement and soil-husbandry solutions for urban trees in sealed and insular sites. Plant and Soil, 483(1–2), 153–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-022-05728-3  Kargar, M., Jutras, P ., Clark, O., Hendershot, W. H., & Prasher, S. O. (2013). Trace metal contamination in�uenced by land use, soil age, and organic matter in Montreal tree pit soil. Journal of Environmental Quality, 42(5), 1527–1533. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 173 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 174 https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2013.02.0055  Krige, K. (2024, February 1). Mechanical damage to trees. CLC Tree Services. https://clctreeservices.com/mechanical-damage-to-trees/  Lecigne, B., Delagrange, S., & Messier, C. (2020). Determinants of delayed traumatic tree reiteration growth: Levels of branch growth control and insights for urban tree management, modeling and future research. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 47, 126541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126541  Lemay, J. P ., & Lemay, M. A. (2015). The impact of environmental stresses on the survivability of the urban landscape: A review of the literature and recommendations. https://horttrades.com/assets/1453841341.The_impact_of_environmental_stresses.pdf  Meng, L., Zhou, Y., Román, M. O., Stokes, E. C., Wang, Z., Asrar, G. R., Mao, J., Richardson, A. D., Gu, L., & Wang, Y. (2022). Arti�cial light at night: an underappreciated effect on phenology of deciduous woody plants. PNAS Nexus, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac046  Miller, B., & Bassuk, N. (2022). Carya species for use in the managed landscape: Predicted drought tolerance. HortScience, 57(12), 1558–1563. https://doi.org/10.21273/hortsci16756-22  Nechita, C., Iordache, A. M., Lemr, K., Levanič, T., & Pluhacek, T. (2021). Evidence of declining trees resilience under long term heavy metal stress combined with climate change heating. Journal of Cleaner Production, 317, 128428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128428  Needoba, A., Porter, E., LeFrancois, C., Dobbs, C., Allen, J. B., Cox, T., & Coulthard, M. (2016). Urban Forest Climate Adaptation Framework for Metro Vancouver. In Urban Forest Climate Adaptation Framework for Metro Vancouver [Report]. Metro Vancouver. https://metrovancouver.org/services/regional-planning/Documents/urban-forest-climate-adaptation- framework-tree-species-selection.pdf  Ordóñez, C., Jr., Sabetski, V., Millward, A. A., Steenberg, J. W. N., Grant, A., & Urban, J. (2018). The in�uence of abiotic factors on street tree condition and mortality in a Commercial-Retail Streetscape. In Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 44(3), 133–145. https://www.csla-aapc.ca/sites/csla-aapc.ca/�les/135_145_AUFMay2018.pdf  Ordóñez-Barona, C., Sabetski, V., Millward, A. A., & Steenberg, J. (2018). Deicing salt contamination reduces urban tree performance in structural soil cells. Environmental Pollution, 234, 562–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.101  Shannon, T. P ., Ahler, S. J., Mathers, A., Ziter, C. D., & Dugan, H. A. (2020). Road salt impact on soil electrical conductivity across an urban landscape. Journal of Urban Ecology, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/jue/juaa006  Shinwary, D. (2021). Cutting our Losses: Investigating Mechanical Damage to Trees at the Toronto District School Board (TDSB) (By University of Toronto, John H. Daniels Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 174 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 175 Design, & Toronto District School Board (TDSB)) [Thesis]. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/110005/1/ Investigating%20Mechanical%20Damage%20to%20Trees%20at%20the%20Toronto%20District%20Sch ool%20Board%20%28TDSB%29.pdf  Siegwolf, R. T. W., Savard, M. M., Grams, T. E. E., & Voelker, S. (2022). Impact of increasing CO2, and air pollutants (NOx, SO2, O3) on the stable isotope ratios in tree rings. In Tree physiology/Tree physiology (Dordrecht) (pp. 675–710). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92698-4_24  Singh, O. (2023). Species Selection in Urban Forestry—Towards urban Metabolism. In Springer eBooks (pp. 275–293). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-29422-8_14  Thomas, B. R., Stoehr, M., Schreiber, S. G., Benowicz, A., Schroeder, W. R., Soolanayakanahally, R., Stefner, C., Elliott, K. A., Philis, N., Rubal, N., Périnet, P ., Perron, M., Simpson, D., Fullarton, M., Sherrill, J., Myers, M., Steeves, D., Bockstette, S., English, B., & Kort, J. (2024). Tree Improvement in Canada – past, present and future, 2023 and beyond. The Forestry Chronicle, 100(1). https://mffp.gouv.qc.ca/documents/forets/recherche/AP_thomas-et-al-2024-tree-improvement-in- canad.pdf  Vitali, V., Ramirez, J. A., Perrette, G., Delagrange, S., Paquette, A., & Messier, C. (2019). Complex Above- and Below-Ground Growth responses of two urban tree species following Root, stem, and Foliage Damage—An Experimental approach. Frontiers in Plant Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.01100  Yousaf, M., Mandiwana, K. L., Baig, K. S., & Lu, J. (2020). Evaluation of Acer rubrum Tree Bark as a Bioindicator of Atmospheric Heavy Metal Pollution in Toronto, Canada. Water Air & Soil Pollution, 231(8). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-04758-w  Ziter, C. D., Pedersen, E. J., Kucharik, C. J., & Turner, M. G. (2019). Scale-dependent interactions between tree canopy cover and impervious surfaces reduce daytime urban heat during summer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7575–7580. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1817561116  Zupancic, T., Westmacott, C., & Bulthuis, M. (2015). The impact of green space on heat and air pollution in urban communities: A meta-narrative systematic review. https://davidsuzuki.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/impact-green-space-heat-air-pollution-urban- communities.pdf  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 175 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 176 Insects and Diseases Trees in urban environments face signi�cant abiotic and climate change-related stresses, which make them particularly vulnerable to insects and diseases (Climate Atlas of Canada, n.d.). As climate change leads to warmer temperatures and drier conditions, the susceptibility of urban forests to these threats is expected to increase [see chapter: Air Quality and Climate Change]. While many native insect species contribute positively to urban biodiversity and ecosystems, some native and non- native insects can cause severe damage to urban forests. They can defoliate trees, suck sap, bore into bark, carry diseases, weaken trees, and lead to tree death and costly management consequences.  Forest insects and diseases in Canada can be classi�ed into three broad categories: native, alien, and invasive species (NRCan, 2023). Invasive species, whether native or alien, are species that spread beyond their known usual range and that are capable of causing environmental and/or economic damage. The mountain pine beetle, which has extended its range from British Columbia to Alberta, exempli�es a native insect behaving invasively (NRCan, 2024a). Native species outbreaks occur periodically and can be severe (e.g., spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae)). Alien insects have been introduced into Canada and often become pests, invading new hosts and ecosystems. Notable examples are the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), which has signi�cantly impacted Highlights Key definitions Native, alien, and invasive species. Impacts Negative effects of invasive insect pests and diseases. Management and mitigation Monitoring, cultural practices, biological and chemical controls, public education, and biodiversity conservation. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 176 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 177 populations of Ash trees (Fraxinus spp). Beetle species primarily spread Dutch Elm Disease (DED). DED, which includes fungal pathogens (Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, a more aggressive strain, and Ophiostoma ulmi), has already devastated elm trees (Ulmus spp) in Eastern North America and poses a threat to elms across Canada (Government of Saskatchewan, n.d.).  Pests and diseases cause economic and ecological damage and affect the social fabric of communities by altering landscapes and reducing the aesthetic value of urban areas. Effective management and mitigation strategies, including monitoring, cultural practices, biological and chemical controls, public education, and promoting diversity, are essential to protect these valuable urban forests and ensure their continued contribution to the health and well-being of Canadian cities. Insects Historically, Canadian cities have faced signi�cant challenges from various insects and diseases that have had profound economic and environmental impacts. The Emerald Ash Borer (EAB), �rst detected in Canada in 2002, is one of the most destructive pests in North America. It has killed millions of ash trees across Ontario, Quebec, and other regions, causing substantial economic losses (NRCan, 2024b) [see chapter: Economic Value and Appraisal of Trees]. For example, Windsor, Ontario had to remove over 10,000 ash trees, drastically altering the urban landscape and increasing municipal management costs (Arnberger et al., 2017). The City of Montreal has also faced severe impacts, with large-scale tree removals disrupting recreational areas and incurring high costs for tree treatment, replacement, and removal, highlighting broader social and economic impacts of pest infestations (Ville de Montreal, 2023). The economic impact of the EAB alone is expected to cost Canadian municipalities $2 billion in treatment, tree replacement, and removal over the coming decades (NRCan, 2018; Vogt, Hauer & Fischer, 2015). The Asian Longhorned Beetle (ALB) (Anoplophora glabripennis), detected in Toronto in 2003, poses a signi�cant threat to hardwood trees in urban areas (Haak et al., 2009). It kills trees by boring into their trunks and branches, leading to structural failure. Efforts to eradicate the beetle in Toronto have involved the removal of over 25,000 trees, affecting local biodiversity and the aesthetic value of green spaces Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 177 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 178 (Wilson and Smith, 2017). These ALB populations have been successfully eradicated (NRCan, 2024a). The Spongy Moth (Lymantria dispar) is another pest that defoliates various tree species, weakening them and making them susceptible to other stresses. In 2020, southern Ontario experienced one of the largest spongy moth outbreaks, leading to signi�cant defoliation and stress on Oak (Quercus spp), Maple (Acer spp), and other tree species (Invasive Species Centre, 2024b). The Woolly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae), an invasive insect, threatens forests in eastern Canada and remnants of native forests in urban areas. It feeds on hemlock trees (Tsuga canadeanis ), causing them to decline and eventually die, which could have cascading effects on forest ecosystems (Dreistadt, Dahlsten & Frankie, 1990). Diseases The Dutch Elm Disease (DED), introduced to Canada in the mid-20th century, devastated elm populations across the east and continues to spread across the country (Government of Saskatchewan, n.d.). Winnipeg, known as the "City of Elms," has lost thousands of elms to this fungal disease. The loss of these trees has not only reduced urban canopy cover but has also affected the aesthetic and cultural value of the city (Hildahl, 1977). Chestnut Blight, caused by Cryphonectria parasitica, a fungus introduced from Asia, has eradicated native chestnut trees (genus Castanea) throughout the Carolinian zone. This has reduced biodiversity, changed forest communities, and impacted wildlife that once relied on chestnuts as a food source. Tree diseases also impact the Canadian economy, particularly in regions where these species are abundant (Invasive Species Centre, 2024a). Although not yet widespread in Canada, Sudden Oak Death (SOD), caused by the invasive pathogen water mold (Phytophthora ramorum), poses a signi�cant threat to Canadian urban forests. The potential introduction of SOD could lead to widespread oak tree mortality, signi�cantly altering the landscape and biodiversity of urban forests in Canadian cities (Braddy, 2023). Another emerging threat recently detected in Ontario, Oak Wilt, is a fungal disease caused by Ceratocystic fagacearum that blocks the water-conducting vessels of oak trees, causing them to wilt and die. These diseases have the potential to cause widespread oak tree mortality, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 178 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 179 highlighting the need for thorough monitoring and rapid response strategies (Forest Pathology, 2024). Management and Mitigation Strategies The decline of native tree species across Canada due to pests and diseases has had many negative impacts and signi�cant impacts on forests, biodiversity, ecological functions, and the Canadian economy. The decline of species populations like the American chestnut, black ash (Fraxainus nigra), and hemlock contributes to the loss of genetic diversity of urban forests, making them more vulnerable to future threats. Managing the impact of invasive species is costly ecologically and economically. Ecological cost is the loss of species, biodiversity, habitat, and ecological and cultural functions, while the economic cost of dealing with the impact, managing the impacts, and loss of ecological services is also signi�cant (Crystal-Ornelas et al., 2021). For example, municipalities and conservation groups in Ontario spend approximately $50.8 million annually on managing invasive species (Invasive Species Centre, 2023). The cost of dealing with EAB's impact and management in urban streets could reach around $1.38 billion by 2035 (Hope et al., 2020).  The management and mitigation of insect and disease infestations in Canadian urban forests require a comprehensive approach that includes monitoring, cultural practices, biological and chemical controls, public education, and promoting diversity (Hotte et al., 2015). Monitoring and Early Detection is one method that employs regular inspections and the use of traps, which are crucial for the early detection of pests and rapid intervention. This approach has been effective in managing pests like the ALB and EAB in Toronto and Montreal (NRCan, 2018; Ville to Montreal, 2023), as early detection and eradication stopped the spread of the invasive insect. The use of natural predators (biological control) and the judicious application of insecticides (chemical control) can also help manage pest populations. For example, Montreal's response to the EAB has included a combination of tree removal, biological controls, and public education to limit the spread (Les Amis de la Montagne, 2022).  Urban forest management plans for Canadian cities have recognized invasive species issues, preventing and managing their impact. For example, the City of Calgary’s strategic management plan incorporates several invasive species Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 179 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 180 strategies: early detection and response, research and development of new eradication strategies, inventorying, prevention, community outreach, and integrated weed management that uses biological, chemical and cultural control methods to eliminate or prevent priority invasive species (City of Calgary, 2020). Additionally, the plan recognizes that maintaining tree health through proper watering, mulching, pruning, and other cultural practices increases tree resilience against pests and diseases [see chapter: Tree Maintenance]. Removing and properly disposing of infected or infested trees and plant materials are vital to preventing the spread of pests and diseases. Federal quarantines and local initiatives, such as the "ash-free" zone in southwestern Ontario, have been slowing the spread of pests like the EAB (NRCan, 2018; MacFarlane and Meyer, 2005). Raising awareness about urban forest health and involving the community in monitoring efforts are also essential for effective pest and disease management. Public education campaigns in cities like Montreal and Toronto have been critical in controlling the spread of pests like the EAB and ALB (Les Amis de la Montagne, 2018). The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs also emphasizes integrated pest management practices that focus on prevention and cultural methods (OMAFRA, 2012). Finally, promoting species and genetic diversity in urban forests reduces the risk of widespread damage from any single pest or disease. This strategy is important for mitigating the effects of invasive species like the spongy moth and sudden oak death, but also for other tree species and urban forest management in general (Braddy, 2023). Resources Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2023). Insects. https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/plant-health/invasive-species/insects Climate Atlas of Canada. (n.d.-a). Forest Pests and Climate Change: Prairie Climate Centre. https://climateatlas.ca/forest-pests-and-climate-change Government of Canada. (2015). Trees, insects and diseases of Canada’s forests. Canadian Insects Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 180 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 181 https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/home Invasive Species Centre. (2022). Forest Invasives – Invasive Species Centre. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/forest-invasives/ Les Amis De La Montagne. (2019). Everything You Always Wanted to Know About the Emerald Ash Borer on Mount Royal. https://www.lemontroyal.qc.ca/en/in-the-news/everything-you-always-wanted-to-know-about-the- emerald-ash-borer-on-mount-royal National Forestry Database. (2023). Forest Insects | National Forestry Database. http://nfdp.ccfm.org/en/data/insects.php  Invasive Species Centre. (2024b). Invasive Insects – Invasive Species Centre. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/invasive-species/meet-the-species/invasive-insects/ Natural Resources Canada (NRCan). (2024a). Asian longhorned beetle. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/forests/insects-disturbances/top-forest- insects-and-diseases-canada/asian-longhorned-beetle/13369  Natural Resources Canada (NRCan). (2024b). Emerald ash borer. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/forests/insects-disturbances/top-forest- insects-and-diseases-canada/emerald-ash-borer/13377 The Canadian Encyclopedia. (2012). Insect pests. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/insect-pests Government of Canada. (2015). Trees, insects and diseases of Canada’s forests. https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/home Government of Saskatchewan. (n.d.). Dutch Elm Disease | Forest Health. https://www.saskatchewan.ca/business/agriculture-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/forest- health/dutch-elm-disease Hildahl, V. (1977). Recognition And Control of Dutch Elm Disease in the Prairie Provinces. Canadian Forestry Service. https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/23410.pdf Invasive Species Centre. (2022). Forest Invasives – Invasive Species Centre. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/forest-invasives/ Invasive Species Centre. (2024a). Chestnut Blight – Invasive Species Centre. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/invasive-species/meet-the-species/invasive-pathogens/ chestnut-blight/ Diseases Management Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 181 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 182 City of Calgary. (2020). Policy CP2020-01: Pest Management. https://www.calgary.ca/content/dam/www/csps/parks/documents/planning-and-operations/pest- management/integrated-pest-management-plan.pdf  City of Calgary. (2022). Environment Strategy and Action Plan. https://engage.calgary.ca/environment  Climate Atlas of Canada. (n.d.-b). Urban Forests and Climate Change: Prairie Climate Centre. https://climateatlas.ca/urban-forests-and-climate-change Government of Alberta. (n.d.). Module 5 Integrated Pest Management. https://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/prm12233/$FILE/ farmer_pesticide_5.pdf  Forest Gene Conservation Association (FGCA). (2022). Butternut Recovery - FGCA. https://fgca.net/species-conservation/trees-in-trouble/butternut/ Government of British Columbia. (2019). Prevention and Cultural Methods for Pest Management - Home and Garden Pest Management Guide. In Home & Garden Pest Management Guide (2019 Edition). https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/ animal-and-crops/plant-health/gardenguide-5-cultural-control.pdf   Invasive Species Centre. (2023). Economic impacts of invasive species. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/invasive-species/what-is-at-risk/invasive-species-economic- impacts/  Natural Resources Canada (NRCan). (2018). Fighting the emerald ash borer with science. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/simply-science/�ghting-the-emerald-ash-borer-science/21144#  Natural Resources Canada (NRCan). (2023). Forest pest management. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/forests/insects-disturbances/forest-pest- management/13361  Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. (2012). Integrated Pest Management. https://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/CropOp/en/general_agronomics/pest_management/ integrated_pest_management.html Davey Tree. (n.d.). Insect & disease resource center. https://www.davey.com/insect-disease-resource-center/ Arnsberger, A., Schneider, I. E., Ebenberger, M., Eder, R., Venette, R. C., Snyder, S. A., Gobster, P . H., Choi, A., & Cottrell, S. (2017). Emerald ash borer impacts on visual preferences for urban forest recreation settings. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 27, 235–245. Other Online Resources Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 182 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 183 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.08.004  Braddy. (2023). Sudden Oak Death vs Oak Wilt. Austin Tree Surgeons. https://austintreesurgeons.com/sudden-oak-death-vs-oak-wilt/ Collins, D. J. (2007). Biotic and abiotic stressors of the urban forest. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 82(6), 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2007.11512312  Crystal-Ornelas, R., Hudgins, E. J., Cuthbert, R. N., Haubrock, P . J., Fantle-Lepczyk, J., Angulo, E., Kramer, A. M., Ballesteros-Mejia, L., Leroy, B., Leung, B., López-López, E., Diagne, C. and Courchamp, F. (2021) Economic costs of biological invasions within North America. In: Zenni, R. D., McDermott, S., García- Berthou, E., and Essl, F. (Eds) The economic costs of biological invasions around the world. NeoBiota, 67, 485-510. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.67.58038  Dale, A. G., & Frank, S. D. (2017). Warming and drought combine to increase pest insect �tness on urban trees. PLoS ONE, 12(3), e0173844. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173844  Dodds, K. J., & Orwig, D. A. (2011). An invasive urban forest pest invades natural environments — Asian longhorned beetle in northeastern US hardwood forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 41(9), 1729–1742. https://doi.org/10.1139/x11-097  Dreistadt, S., Dahlsten, D., & Frankie, G. (1990). Urban Forests and Insect Ecology. www.jstor.org, 40(03), 192–198. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311364?seq=3  Forest Pathology. (2024). Tree Disease Blog | Forest pathology. https://forestpathology.org/blog/  Haack, R., H´Erard, F., Sun, J., & Turgeon, J. (2009). Managing Invasive Populations of Asian Longhorned Beetle and Citrus Longhorned Beetle: A Worldwide Perspective. Annual Review of Entomology, 521–546. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085427  Hope, E., Sun, L., McKenney, D., Bogdanski, B., Pedlar, J., Macaulay, L., MacDonald, H., and Lawrence, K. (2020). Emerald Ash Borer, Agrilus planipennis: An Economic Analysis of Regulations in Canada. Natural Resources Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2020/rncan-nrcan/Fo143-2-454-eng.pdf  Hotte, N., Barron, S., Cheng, Z., Nesbitt, L., & Cowan, J. (2015). The Social and Economic Values of Canada's Urban Forests: A National Synthesis. https://urbanforestry.sites.olt.ubc.ca/�les/2016/09/The-Social-and-Economic-Values-of- Canada%E2%80%99s-Urban-Forests-A-National-Synthesis-2015.pdf  Khan, T., & Conway, T. M. (2020). Vulnerability of common urban forest species to projected climate change and practitioners' perceptions and responses. Environmental Management, 65(4), 534–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-020-01270-z  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 183 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 184 LaDeau, S. L., Allan, B. F., Leisnham, P . T., & Levy, M. Z. (2015). The ecological foundations of transmission potential and vector-borne disease in urban landscapes. Functional Ecology, 29(7), 889– 901. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12487  Larouche, J., Rioux, D., Bardekjian, A. C., & Gélinas, N. (2021). Urban forestry research needs identi�ed by Canadian municipalities. The Forestry Chronicle, 97(02), 158–167. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc2021-017  Les Amis De La Montagne. (2018). How the Campaign Against the Emerald Ash Borer Will Affect Mount Royal and Its Users. https://www.lemontroyal.qc.ca/en/in-the-news/how-the-campaign-against-the-emerald-ash-borer-will- affect-mount-royal-and-its-users Les Amis De La Montagne. (2022). New round of tree felling to �ght emerald ash borer infestation. https://www.lemontroyal.qc.ca/en/in-the-news/new-round-of-tree-felling-to-�ght-emerald-ash-borer- infestation MacFarlane, D. W., & Meyer, S. P . (2005). Characteristics and distribution of potential ash tree hosts for emerald ash borer. Forest Ecology and Management, 213(1–3), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.013  Magasi, L. P . (1995). Insects And Diseases of the Urban Forest in the Maritimes. Journal of Arboriculture, 21(1). https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document? repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=97f052b32a6523b53b2e5d37f62db25a1f1599fe  McCallum, B. D., Geddes, C. M., Chatterton, S., Peng, G., Carisse, O., Turkington, T. K., Olfert, O., Leeson, J., Sharpe, S., Stephens, E., Hervet, V., Aboukhaddour, R., & Vankosky, M. (2021). We stand on guard for thee: A brief history of pest surveillance on the Canadian Prairies. Crop Protection, 149, 105748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2021.105748  Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. (2022). Integrated pest management and protecting natural enemies and pollinators. https://www.ontario.ca/�les/2022-10/omafra-agronomy-guide-for-�eld-crops-chapter-14- en-2022-10-13.pdf  Paap, T., Burgess, T. I., & Wing�eld, M. J. (2017). Urban trees: bridge-heads for forest pest invasions and sentinels for early detection. Biological Invasions, 19(12), 3515–3526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-017-1595-x  Poland, T. M., & McCullough, D. G. (2006). Emerald Ash Borer: Invasion of the urban forest and the threat to North America’s ash resource. Journal of Forestry, 104(3), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.1093/jof/104.3.118  Province of Newfoundland and Labrador. (2002). Pest Management. https://www.gov.nl.ca/ffa/�les/agrifoods-land-envseries-pdf-pest-man.pdf  R. Wilson, E., & M. Smith, S. (2017). All that is Green is not Gold: The Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) Invasion of Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 184 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 185 Toronto’s Urban Forest, Canada [Slideshow]. 51st Arboricultural Association National Amenity Conference, Exeter: England. https://www.trees.org.uk/Trees.org.uk/media/Trees-org.uk/Documents/Conference17/MON-05- Edward-Wilson.pdf  Sambaraju, K. R., & Côté, C. (2021). Are Climates in Canada and the United States Suitable for the European Spruce Bark Beetle, Ips typographus, and Its Fungal Associate, Endoconidiophora polonica? Forests, 12(12), 1725. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121725  Shukla, M., Jones, A., Sullivan, J., Liu, C., Gosling, S., & Saxena, P . (2013). New method of growing tree clones may help scientists in conservation efforts. https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/items/d3b32771-4fbc-4594-982c-c745bc22ea98  Tanney, J. B., Feau, N., Shamoun, S. F., Kope, H. H., Dicaire, A., Drugmand, B., Walker, J., Burlakoti, P ., & Joshi, V. (2024). Cryptostroma corticale (Ellis & Everh.) P . H. Greg. & S. Waller causing sooty bark disease in British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/07060661.2024.2369324  Vecht, J. V., & Conway, T. (2015). Comparing species composition and planting trends: Exploring pest Vulnerability in Toronto’s urban forest. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 41(1). https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2015.004  Ville de Montréal. (2023). What to do about your ash tree. https://montreal.ca/en/articles/what-to-do-about-your-ash-tree-12514#do_you_have_an_ash_tree  Vogt, J., Hauer, R., & Fischer, B. (2015). The costs of maintaining and not maintaining the urban Forest: A review of the Urban Forestry and Arboriculture Literature. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 41(6). https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2015.027  Xie, C., Chen, S., Liu, D., & Jim, C. Y. (2024). Unveiling the complex networks of urban tree diversity research: A global perspective. Ecology and evolution, 14(6), e11630. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.11630  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 185 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 186 Invasive Plant Species Invasive plant species pose a signi�cant threat to urban forests across Canada, impacting biodiversity, ecosystem health, ecological functions and services of green spaces and natural urban areas while also causing signi�cant economic impact. According to the 2021 national survey led by the Invasive Species Council, Canadian municipalities estimated annual expenditures on invasive plant species ranged from $95.8 million to $400 million (Vyn & Invasive Species Centre, 2022). Effective and integrated prevention and management of invasive plant species is crucial to maintaining the integrity and resilience of urban forests to ensure biodiversity conservation and a steady �ow of economic and ecological bene�ts provided by urban forests.  Due to the history of land use change (e.g., previously agricultural land or disturbed land converted to urban), the introduction of, and preferences for introduced plant species, urban areas tend to have numerous non-native plants, some of which are invasive. The introduced invasive species are either planted or spontaneously established across various land uses, threatening the biodiversity of natural areas. For example, some invasive plants such as Japanese knotweed (Reynoutria japonica), Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), Dog-strangling vine (Vincetoxicum rossicum), European buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus), and Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) proliferate through urban areas, monopolizing natural areas while outcompeting native �ora and disrupting local Highlights Impacts Negative impacts of invasive plants and examples from urban forests in Canada. Management Chemical, physical, and biological control methods. Monitoring Detecting, slowing, and stopping invasive spread. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 186 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 187 ecosystems and ecological functions (City of Toronto, 2013; Ministry of Forests, 2024; Ontario's Invading Species Awareness Program, n.d.; Stanley Park Ecology Society, 2013; Saskatchewan Invasive Species Council, n.d.). Invasive plant species often alter soil biological properties (e.g., mycorrhizal properties), chemistry, and nutrient availability, which hinders the establishment of native species, promoting further expansion and establishment of invasive plants (Ehrenfeld, 2003; Kourtev et al., 2002). Invasive plants modify vegetation composition, growing conditions, and light conditions, and decrease water availability for native plants, making environments less hospitable for native species (Lamarque et al., 2011). Another risk from invasive plants involves the possibility of them hybridizing with native plants and eventually eliminating native genetic potential (Mooney & Cleland, 2001). These cumulative impacts ultimately change the composition and structure of natural vegetation in urban areas (Delavaux et al., 2023). It has been shown that non-native, invasive trees reduce the diversity of native insects and could facilitate the spread of non-native pests (Branco et al., 2019). Moreover, invasive plant species can signi�cantly change ecosystem functions and negatively impact human health (Vila et al., 2011). Some of the planted or self-established trees in Canadian cities are also listed as invasives and include: Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), European black alder (Alnus incana), White mulberry (Morus alba), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway maple (Acer platanoides), Manitoba maple (Acer negundo), Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), Autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii), and European buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica). However, many other invasive trees, shrubs, and grasses occur in Canadian urban areas and pose a threat to natural ecosystems.  Managing Invasive Plant Species in Urban Forests Invasive species management is multifaceted and includes various tools and methods ranging from policy, control, and eradication measures to public education and prevention actions. In Canada, different levels of government have introduced weed and/or invasive species control legislation prohibiting plant introduction and distribution. At the national level, provincial control measures with federal regulations Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 187 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 188 can be adopted to control the spread of invasive species in Canada (Government of Canada & Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC), 2024; Sherman & Ontario Invasive Plant Council, 2015). For example, the government of Ontario prohibits and restricts the import, possession, transport, or release of 42 invasive species under the Invasive Species Act (Government of Ontario, 2023). Not all invasive species have the same impact; a few species cause most of the damage. In British Columbia, six invasive species alone caused an estimated $65 million in damage in 2008 (Invasive Species Council of British Columbia, 2024b).  Invasive Plants Control The control and eradication of invasive plant species range from mechanical and chemical techniques to burning, �ooding, biological control, and other control methods. Mechanical removal methods such as hand-pulling, mowing, and cutting can effectively manage small infestations. More recently, controlled goat grazing has been used to manage invasive species in natural areas (Rathfon, 2021; City of Mississauga, 2021).  Herbicides and other chemical controls may also be used selectively to control invasive species, mainly when mechanical methods are impractical. However, the application of these chemicals must comply with local regulations and be conducted by certi�ed professionals (Invasive Species Centre, 2021; Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, n.d.). Also, the use of certain chemicals to control weeds and invasive plants has been forbidden by many municipalities across Canada (The Ontario Pesticides Act, 2024; City of Vancouver, n.d.; Health Canada, 2024). Biological control methods are also used to introduce natural predators or pathogens speci�c to the invasive species to manage its populations. This approach requires research and careful ecological risk assessment to avoid unintended ecological impacts (Invasive Species Centre, 2021). For example, after conducting over a decade of testing, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, as part of a larger integrated management strategy for invasive Phragmites (Phragmites australis), approved the release of two stem-boring moths (Archanara neurica and Lenisa geminipuncta) to control the spread of this species. Phragmites is one of Canada's most disruptive invasive species (Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2024) that has been Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 188 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 189 threatening wetlands' biodiversity, but has also been rapidly spreading along roads, including urban areas. However, biocontrol measures alone are not enough to eradicate invasive phragmites. They are expected to gradually reduce species dominance and habitat disturbances, allowing native plants and animals to recover (Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2024). Early Detection and Rapid Response Early identi�cation and control of invasive species is another essential tool that is based on regular monitoring and community reporting of invasive plant observations. One such approach is early detection and rapid response (EDRR) of invasive species. In British Columbia, for instance, EDRR activities are conducted in partnership with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency and involve key land managers and stakeholders across B.C. and neighbouring regions (British Columbia Inter-Ministry Invasive Species Working Group (IMISWG), 2014). Moreover, invasive species monitoring and management through remote sensing, drone-based imaging, and data processing and analysis have emerged as practical solutions to map and detect large plant invasions in urban forests (Singh et al., 2024).  Education Educating the community about the impacts of invasive species and encouraging the use of native plants in landscaping can signi�cantly aid in prevention and control efforts. Across Canada, different levels of government, non-pro�t organizations, regional groups, and conservation authorities have been educating the public and eradicating or preventing invasive plants from spreading in urban areas (Government of Alberta, 2014; Invasive Species Council of British Columbia, 2024). These groups often initiate and engage in developing invasive species strategic management plans and best management practices (BMPs), as part of urban forest management (Ontario Invasive Plant Council, 2024). Community members and the public are also actively involved in controlling invasive species and removing them from natural areas. Examples of community efforts in coordination with municipalities, NGOs, or on their own exist from the east to the west coast (Invasive Species Centre, 2024).  Collaborative efforts between municipalities and academia and the continuous Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 189 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 190 adaptation of best management practices based on current research and local conditions also enhance invasive species control effectiveness and contribute to urban forest sustainability (Sherman & Ontario Invasive Plant Council, 2015). Municipalities have integrated invasive plant management strategies into their urban forest management plans to preserve the ecological health and resilience of urban green spaces and natural areas (City of Toronto, 2024a; Government of Alberta, 2024; Patterson, 2015). Many municipalities started prioritizing planting native and non- invasive and introduced tree species to lead by example and stop the spread of invasive species (Patterson, 2015). However, some invasive species, such as Norway maple (Acer platanoides), are still planted and produced by tree nurseries. Resources Canadian Council on Invasive Species. (2021). Home - Canadian Council on Invasive Species. https://canadainvasives.ca/  Canadian Council on Invasive Species. (2022). National Invasive Species and Climate Change Network. https://canadainvasives.ca/invasive-species/invasive-species-and-climate-change/    Canadian Council on Invasive Species. (n.d.). Don’t let it loose. https://canadainvasives.ca/programs/dont-let-it-loose/   Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2008). Invasive alien plants in Canada - Technical report. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2008/inspection/A104-74-2008E.pdf  Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2012). 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Pest Control Products (pesticides) acts and regulations. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/consumer-product-safety/pesticides-pest- management/public/protecting-your-health-environment/pest-control-products-acts-and-regulations- Canadian National Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 190 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 191 en.html  Invasive Species Centre. (2022). Best Management Practices - FY 2023.xlsx. https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1B1njTjkp57cOTPZMPJuuK58pRZotl8tn/ edit#gid=1504061488  Invasive Species Centre. (2021). Response and Control – Invasive Species Centre. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/forest-invasives/response-and-control/  Invasive Species Centre. (2024). Best Management Practices Database – Invasive Species Centre. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/invasive-species/invasive-species-resources/best- management-practices-database/  Nature Conservancy Canada. (n.d.). Invasive Species Gallery. https://www.natureconservancy.ca/en/what-we-do/resource-centre/invasive-species/  Vyn, R. J. & Invasive Species Centre. (2022). Estimated annual expenditures on invasive species by Canadian Municipalities: 2021 National Survey results. In Invasive Species Centre [Report]. https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Final-Report-2021-National- Survey-Results-Final-Version.pdf  Alberta Invasive Species Council. (2021). Grow Me Instead – Be plant wise. City of Edmonton. https://www.edmonton.ca/public-�les/assets/document?path=AISC_GrowMeInstead_2015_web.pdf Alberta Invasive Species Council & Wheatland County. (2022). Invasive Plants of Alberta (4 ed.). https://abinvasives.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Weed-Guide-2022-web.pdf  Alberta Invasive Species Council. (2025). Invasive Species – Factsheets. https://abinvasives.ca/invasive-species/  City of Calgary. (n.d.). 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Alberta King’s Printer. https://kings-printer.alberta.ca/documents/Regs/2010_019.pdf  Strathcona County. (2024). Invasive species. https://www.strathcona.ca/agriculture-environment/conservation/invasive-species/ British Columbia Inter-Ministry Invasive Species Working Group (IMISWG). (2014). BC Early Detection Rapid Response (EDRR) Plan for Invasive Species. Invasive Species Early Detection and Rapid Response Plan for British Columbia. 37 pp. [Report]. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/invasive-species/ guidance-resources/�nal_imiswg_bc_is_edrr_plan_nov_2014.pdf  City of Richmond. (2015). Invasive Species Action Plan. https://www.richmond.ca/__shared/assets/ISAP43428.pdf  City of Nanaimo. (2014). Invasive plant Management strategy. https://www.nanaimo.ca/docs/default-document-library/con-invasive-plant-management-strategy- (�nal).pdf  City of New Westminster. (2019). 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Priority Invasive Species and Best Practices [presentation]. https://emaofbc.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/EMABC-November-30-2023-Diane-and-Lara.pdf  Invasive Species Council of British Columbia. (2024a). Invasive Species Council of British Columbia. https://bcinvasives.ca/  Invasive Species Council of British Columbia. (2024b). What's the big deal? - Invasive Species Council of British Columbia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 192 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 193 British Columbia. https://bcinvasives.ca/whats-the-big-deal/#bcs-most-unwanted  Ministry of Forests. (2024). Invasive plants - Province of British Columbia. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/plants-animals-ecosystems/invasive-species/ management/plants  Stanley Park Ecology Society. (2013). Invasive Plant Management Plan.  https://stanleyparkecology.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/SPES_StanleyParkISMP_5June2014.pdf Invasive Species Council of Manitoba. (n.d.). Invasive Aquatic Species List. https://invasivespeciesmanitoba.com/site/index.php?page=aquatic-species  Invasive Species Council of Manitoba. (n.d.). Invasive Terrestrial Species List. https://invasivespeciesmanitoba.com/site/index.php?page=terrestrial-species New Brunswick Invasive Species Council. (n.d.). Invasive Species Pro�les. https://www.nbinvasives.ca/invasive-species-pro�les  Nova Scotia Invasive Species Council, New Brunswick Invasive Species Council. (2021). Grow Me Instead – Nova Scotia and New Brunswick Edition. https://nsinvasives.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/CCIS-NSISC-Grow-Me-Instead- Guide_2023_EN_web.pdf Government of Northwest Territories. (n.d.). Invasive alien species. Environment and Climate Change. https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/invasive-alien-species  Northwest Territories Council on Invasive Species, Pests, and Pathogens. (n.d.). Welcome to NWT CISPP.  https://nwtcispp.ca Energy and Environment & Halifax Regional Municipality. (2020). Invasive species. https://cdn.halifax.ca/sites/default/�les/documents/about-the-city/energy-environment/ Halifax%20Invasive%20Species%20Report_2020_Edited_FINAL_2_1.pdf  Government of Nova Scotia. (n.d.). Weed Control Act. https://nslegislature.ca/sites/default/�les/legc/statutes/weedctrl.htm  Manitoba New Brunswick Northwest Territories Nova Scotia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 193 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 194 Halifax Regional Municipality. (n.d.). Invasive species in the Halifax region. https://www.halifax.ca/about-halifax/energy-environment/invasive-species-halifax-area  Nova Scotia Invasive Species Council, New Brunswick Invasive Species Council. (2021). Grow Me Instead – Nova Scotia and New Brunswick Edition. https://nsinvasives.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/CCIS-NSISC-Grow-Me-Instead- Guide_2023_EN_web.pdf Nova Scotia Invasive Species Council. (2021). Plant Wise. https://nsinvasives.ca/plant-wise/ City of London. (n.d.). London Invasive Plant Management Strategy. City of London, ON, 47 pp. https://london.ca/sites/default/�les/2020-11/Invasive_Plant_Management_Strategy.pdf  City of Markham. (2024). City of Markham Invasive Plant Species Management Plan. https://pub-markham.escribemeetings.com/�lestream.ashx?DocumentId=87490  City of Mississauga. (2021). Invasive Species Management Plan & Implementation Strategy (pp. 4–5). https://www.mississauga.ca/publication/invasive-species-management-plan-and-implementation- strategy/  City of Ottawa. (n.d.). Invasive species. https://ottawa.ca/en/living-ottawa/environment-conservation-and-climate/wildlife-and-plants/invasive- species  City of Richmond Hill. (n.d.-a). Invasive species. https://www.richmondhill.ca/en/�nd-or-learn-about/invasive-species.aspx  City of Richmond Hill. (n.d.-b). Invasive species in Richmond Hill [Report]. https://www.richmondhill.ca/en/shared-content/resources/documents/UF-Fact-sheet---Invasives--- AODA.pdf  City of Toronto. (2013). Sustaining & Expanding the Urban Forest: Toronto's Strategic Forest Management Plan 2012-2022. https://www.toronto.ca/data/parks/pdf/trees/sustaining-expanding-urban-forest-management- plan.pdf  City of Toronto. (2024a). Urban Forest Management. https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/water-environment/trees/forest-management/urban- forest-management/  City of Toronto. (2024b). Prescribed goat grazing pilot project. https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/water-environment/trees/forest-management/urban- forest-management/prescribed-grazing/  Ducks Unlimited Canada. (2024). Phragmites Biocontrol in Ontario — Ducks Unlimited Canada. https://www.ducks.ca/places/ontario/biocontrol-in-ontario/ Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 194 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 195 Government of Ontario. (2015). Invasive Species Act. https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/15i22  Government of Ontario. (2022). Weed Control Act, W.5. https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90w05  Government of Ontario. (2023). Ontario protecting the economy and environment by taking action against invasive species. Ontario Newsroom. https://news.ontario.ca/en/release/1003961/ontario-protecting-the-economy-and-environment-by- taking-action-against-invasive-species  Jordan, M. (2020). Invasive Plant Species Management for the City of Thunder Bay [thesis]. Lakehead University. https://knowledgecommons.lakeheadu.ca/bitstream/handle/2453/4656/JordanM2020b-1a.pdf  O�ce of the Auditor General of Ontario. (2022). Value-for-Money Audit: Management of invasive species. https://www.auditor.on.ca/en/content/annualreports/arreports/en22/ ENV_ProvMgmtInvasiveSpecies_en22.pdf  Ontario Invasive Plant Council. (2012). Compendium of invasive plant management in Ontario. https://www.ontarioinvasiveplants.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ ManagementCompendium_FINAL.pdf  Ontario Invasive Plant Council. (2024a). Best Management Practices - Ontario Invasive Plant Council. https://www.ontarioinvasiveplants.ca/resources/best-management-practices/  Ontario Invasive Plant Council. (2024b). Early Detection & Rapid Response - Ontario Invasive Plant Council. https://www.ontarioinvasiveplants.ca/what-we-do/edrr/  Ontario’s Invading Species Awareness Program. (2021). A Quick reference guide to managing invasive plants in Ontario. https://www.invadingspecies.com/download/a-quick-reference-guide-to-managing-invasive-plants-in- ontario/  Ontario's Invading Species Awareness Program. (n.d.). Terrestrial Plants | Ontario's Invading Species Awareness Program. https://www.invadingspecies.com/invaders/terrestrial-plants/  Sherman, K. & Ontario Invasive Plant Council. (2015). Creating an Invasive Plant Management Strategy: a framework for Ontario Municipalities. Ontario Invasive Plant Council. https://www.ontarioinvasiveplants.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ PlantManagementStrategy_2015_March172015_D3_PRINTFINAL.pdf  The Ontario Pesticides Act. (2024). Ontario.ca. https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90p11  Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). (2018). Ecological Interlopers – Understanding Invasive Species. TRCA News. https://trca.ca/news/ecological-interlopers-understanding-invasive-species/  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 195 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 196 Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). (2020). TRCA Invasive Species Management Strategy 2020-2025.  https://pub-trca.escribemeetings.com/�lestream.ashx?DocumentId=6533 Government of Prince Edward Island. (2023). Weed Control Act, W-2.1. https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/legislation/weed-control-act  Government of Prince Edward Island. (2023). Invasive Plant and Animal Species. https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/information/environment-energy-and-climate-action/invasive- plant-and-animal-species Prince Edward Island Invasive Species Council. (2021). PEI Invasive Species Council – Home.  https://peiinvasives.com Conseil régional de l'environnement de Laval. (n.d.). Invasive exotic species. https://www.credelaval.qc.ca/en/alien-invasive-species  Fédération interdisciplinaire de l’horticulture ornementale du Québec (FIHOQ). (n.d.). Faites la lutte aux plantes envahissantes. Plantes Envahissantes. https://plantesenvahissantes.org/  Ville de Baie-D'Urfé. (n.d.). Invasive species. https://www.baie-durfe.qc.ca/en/our-departments/page/invasive-species  Ville de Sherbrooke. (n.d.). Invasive and undesirable species. https://www.sherbrooke.ca/en/population-services/environment/natural-areas-and-biodiversity/ invasive-and-undesirable-species Battle River Watershed Alliance (BRWA). (2017). Non-native and Invasive Species Management in the Battle River and Sounding Creek Watersheds. BRWA Planning Document, 66 pages. https://www.battleriverwatershed.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/BRWA-Non-native-and-Invasive- Species-Report-2017.pdf  Government of Saskatchewan. (2020). Weed Control Act, W-11.1. https://publications.saskatchewan.ca/#/products/31364  Saskatchewan Invasive Species Council. (n.d.). Facilitating action against invasive species in Saskatchewan. SISC.  https://www.saskinvasives.ca/ Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 196 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 197 Yukon Invasive Species Council, Yukon Environmental and Socio-economic Assessment Board. (n.d.). YESAB Assessments: Toolkit for identifying and mitigating risks related to terrestrial invasive species. https://www.yukoninvasives.com/~documents/resources/reports/yesab-invasive-species-toolkit/? layout=default  Yukon Invasive Species Council. (2024). Invasive Plants - Yukon Invasive Species Council. https://www.yukoninvasives.com/invasive-species/plants/  Yukon Invasive Species Council. (2023). Invasive Species Best Practices Brochures. https://www.yukoninvasives.com/best-practices/  EDD Maps, University of Georgia. (n.d.). Species Listing – Federal Noxious Weeds. https://www.eddmaps.org/lists/list.cfm?id=16  New York Invasive Species (IS) Information. (n.d.). Best Management Practices – New York Invasive Species Information. https://nyis.info/best-management-practices/  Patterson, M. (2015). Gwinnett County Parks and Recreation Invasive Plant Species Management Plan. Oregon State University College of Forestry. https://studylib.net/doc/11184508/invasive-plant-species-management-plan  The Nature Conservancy's Adirondack Park Invasive Plant Program. (2020). Invasive Species Best Management Practices. https://www.adkinvasives.com/data/�les/Documents/APIPP-BMPs-Feb-2019.pdf  U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). (2012). Non-native Invasive Species Best Management Practices Guidance for the U.S. Forest Service Eastern Region. https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5412628.pdf  Wisconsin Council on Forestry. (n.d.). Invasive Species Best Management Practices: Urban Forestry. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR). https://councilonforestry.wi.gov/Pages/InvasiveSpecies/UrbanForestry.aspx  Wisconsin Council on Forestry. (2009). Best management practices for preventing the introduction and spread of invasive species. https://councilonforestry.wi.gov/Documents/InvasiveSpecies/UF-BMP- ConsolidatedManual_090811.pdf Aoshana, A. (2021). Invasive Plant Management for Stewardship of Naturalized Urban Forests. (Master Yukon Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 197 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 198 in Forest Conservation (MFC) Student Research Project), University of Toronto, TSpace Repository. http://hdl.handle.net/1807/104164    Delavaux, C. S., Crowther, T. W., Zohner, C. M., Robmann, N. M., Lauber, T., van den Hoogen, J., Maynard, D. S. (2023). Native diversity buffers against severity of non-native tree invasions. Nature, 621(7980), 773-781. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06440-7   Derickx, L., & Antunes, P . (2013). A Guide to the Identi�cation and Control of Exotic Invasive Species in Ontario's Hardwood Forests Invasive Species Research Institute. https://afm.qc.ca/docs/Guidebook- Id%20&%20Control%20of%20Exotic%20Invasive%20species%20in%20Ont.%20SRI-2013.pdf  DiTommaso, A., Lawlor, F. M., & Darbyshire, S. J. (2005). The Biology of Invasive Alien Plants in Canada. 2. Cynanchum rossicum (Kleopow) Borhidi [= Vincetoxicum rossicum (Kleopow) Barbar.] and Cynanchum louiseae (L.) Kartesz & Gandhi [= Vincetoxicum nigrum (L.) Moench]. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 85(1), 243-263. https://doi.org/10.4141/P03-056  Duchesneau, K., Derickx, L., & Antunes, P . M. (2021). Assessing the relative importance of human and spatial pressures on non-native plant establishment in urban forests using citizen science. NeoBiota, 65, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.65.65415   Lapointe, M., & Brisson, J. (2012). A Comparison of Invasive Acer platanoides and Native A. saccharum First-Year Seedlings: Growth, Biomass Distribution and the In�uence of Ecological Factors in a Forest Understory. Forests, 3(2), 190-206. https://doi.org/10.3390/f3020190  Mistry, A. P ., Steffeck, A. W. T., & Potosnak, M. J. (2021). Edge Growth Form of European Buckthorn Increases Isoprene Emissions from Urban Forests. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2020.601678  Nguyen, N.-A., Eskelson, B. N. I., Gergel, S. E., & Murray, T. (2021). The occurrence of invasive plant species differed signi�cantly across three urban greenspace types of Metro Vancouver, Canada. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 59, 126999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.126999  Pile Knapp, L. S., Coyle, D. R., Dey, D. C., Fraser, J. S., Hutchinson, T., Jenkins, M. A., . . . Wang, G. G. (2023). Invasive plant management in eastern North American Forests: A systematic review. Forest Ecology and Management, 550, 121517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121517  Potgieter, L. J., Shrestha, N., & Cadotte, M. W. (2022). Prioritizing sites for terrestrial invasive alien plant management in urban ecosystems. Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 3(3), e12160. https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12160  Rathfon, R. A., Greenler, S. M., & Jenkins, M. A. (2021). Effects of prescribed grazing by goats on non- native invasive shrubs and native plant species in a mixed-hardwood forest. Restoration Ecology, 29(4), Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 198 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 199 e13361. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13361  Singh, K. K., Surasinghe, T. D., & Frazier, A. E. (2024). Systematic review and best practices for drone remote sensing of invasive plants. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 15(6), 998-1015.  https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.14330 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 199 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 200 Fire and the Urban-Rural Interface Forest �res in the boreal forests of Canada are a natural disturbance that drives vegetation dynamics by increasing the diversity of trees and vegetation. However, over the last few decades, the frequency, intensity, and severity of wildland �res have been increasing due to a con�uence of factors. Common forestry practices of �re suppression have led to a sizable accumulation of dead wood and debris, as there are no natural �re regimes to reduce debris buildup (Stocks & Martell, 2016). The increased fuel load allows �res to reach higher into the canopy and burn much hotter. These conditions are compounded by anthropogenic climate change, which has led to drier and longer summers that create an ideal environment for intense and sustained �res. Some Canadian urban and Indigenous communities have traditionally been embedded within forested landscapes, while some new urban areas have also expanded into these areas. These urban-rural interfaces are at risk of experiencing forest �res as �re intensity and frequency increase in Canada. While wild�res occur year-round, the �re season in Canada is generally concentrated from May to September. For Canada, 2023 was the most destructive wild�re year on record. In June 2023, more land was burned in Quebec than in the last 20 years combined (Natural Resources Canada, 2024). The impacts of severe wild�res extend beyond the loss of forests. They destroy communities, displace people, tear down buildings, and displace large groups of people from their homes. Additionally, wild�re Highlights Urban-rural interface Impacts of wild�res on communities within the interface. Fire management How Canadian municipalities are working to prevent and mitigate wild�re impacts at small and large scales. Indigenous communities and fire Traditional/cultural burning practices. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 200 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 201 weather and smoke can extend well beyond the wild�re area and have long-lasting human health impacts (UNDRR, 2024). Fires can also severely impact urban forests by destroying large numbers of trees and green spaces, reducing overall tree canopy and forest diversity. Such impacts leave communities within this interface with little to no tree canopy cover. The severe reduction in canopy cover can intensify summer heat and exacerbate heat-related issues associated with urban heat islands. Tree loss in urban areas also impacts wildlife and plant species that rely on them for food and shelter, while simultaneously decreasing the aesthetic appeal and recreational value of these communities. Additionally, the sudden and large-scale tree canopy losses have long-term implications for community resilience and environmental health. The recovery process requires subsequent tree replanting and forest restoration efforts in urban areas, which can be a costly and time-consuming process. Fire Management  Fire management involves appropriate forest management techniques, public education, and updating landscape management plans and methods at the individual and community level. Individuals in high-risk areas can reduce �re risk to dwellings by clearing �ammable materials around the home, creating �re breaks at the building scale, and incorporating �re-resistant material into building construction. Studies have shown that many buildings catch �re through embers landing on or near the property and spreading out to another adjacent dwelling (BC Wild�re Service, n.d.), and it is common for wind to carry embers hundreds of meters away (Partners in Protection, 2003). As such, maintaining a clean gutter, removing wood piles from the property, and creating a �re break between wooden structures and the house can reduce the chances of ignition. For instance, decks attached to houses and wood furniture can be sources of ignition. Choosing �re-resistant plant species, clearing low branches of adjacent trees to prevent crown �res, and clearing plant debris help to reduce the chance of �re spreading (Beverly et al., 2020). These preventative measures can reduce the risk of dwellings catching on �re and reduce �re spread through communities. On a community or regional level, larger-scale initiatives such as conducting a Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 201 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 202 wild�re assessment, identifying factors that increase the risk of wild�re in the urban area, and carrying out plans to reduce this risk can better prepare communities for the annual �re season. A review of studies in the Paci�c Northwest has shown that a combination of forest thinning and burning is the most effective at decreasing �re severity (Copes-Gerbitz et al., 2022). Thinning lower branches helps to deter the upward spread of �res into the canopy and the spread of �re through the canopy. However, thinning alone has been documented to increase the severity of �res as the overall fuel load at ground level has increased; therefore, a combination of thinning and surface treatments makes the most signi�cant difference, whether prescribed burning or pile burning, in decreasing the intensity of future �res (Davis et al., 2024). Post-treatment wildland �res are less intense and show higher tree survival rates (Davis et al., 2024). These managed landscapes are also easier for �re control personnel to traverse, leading to more effective control of wildland �res (Davis et al., 2024). Over time, treatment effectiveness declines, making long-term forest �re management crucial. Fire and Indigenous Communities  Over the past decades, wild�res with the most extreme intensity and spread have often happened in remote areas of Canada. As a result, smaller towns and Indigenous communities have been disproportionately impacted by wild�res. Smaller towns and Indigenous communities have fewer resources and are less likely to have a developed community wild�re plan (Copes-Gerbitz et al., 2022). Even though Indigenous communities are actively concerned about wild�re risks to wildlife, water quality, and biodiversity, unequal access to �re prevention resources is a systemic barrier that must be overcome to reduce the impact of wild�re (Copes-Gerbitz et al., 2022). Compared to larger municipal and regional districts, Indigenous groups also have a more limited social capacity and have been historically excluded from the planning process; therefore, they often cannot take advantage of government- sponsored programs. Outreach and community-centered approaches should be considered in implementing wild�re prevention plans, and traditional knowledge from Indigenous communities should be included in the discussions (Government of British Columbia, 2022). Prescribed Burns Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 202 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 203 Indigenous people have historically used �re to manage the land and sustain their culture, values, and practices, but modern �re suppression forest management techniques have often prevented these cultural prescribed burns in many areas of Canada (Lambert, 2021; FireSmart Canada, 2022; FireSmart Canada, 2024). This absence of �re on the landscape results in a loss of biodiversity – remnants of native prairie-savannah ecosystems found in Canadian cities (City of Toronto, 2002; District of Saanich, 2023) are testimony to this. Prairie-savannah ecosystems are one of Canada's most threatened vegetation and habitat types due to land conversion and the absence of �re. Prescribed burns help to manage these ecosystems in cities and maintain their biodiversity. Controlled �res help remove dead vegetation, control invasive species, and recycle nutrients back into the soil to prompt the growth of native grasses and wild�owers. For example, with a better understanding of �re ecology, the City of Toronto introduced annual prescribed burns to maintain the native black oak savannah in one of the most iconic city parks: High Park. The practice started in 2000 and has continued every year since. The annual prescribed burn resulted in many positive ecological and social bene�ts, which include public education and the incorporation of traditional knowledge and practice into managing vegetation in urban areas (Martin, 2024; Prescribed Fire, n.d.).  Resources Canadian Climate Institute. (2024). 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Canadian National Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 203 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 204 https://�resmoke.ca/ Government of Canada. (2024). Prepare for wild�res. https://www.getprepared.gc.ca/cnt/hzd/wldfrs-en.aspx  Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC). (2024). Canada - Record wild�res spread to urban areas. https://www.internal-displacement.org/spotlights/canada-record-wild�res-spread-to-urban-areas/  Natural Resources Canada. (2025). Canadian Wildland Fire Information System. https://cw�s.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/home  Natural Resources Canada. (2024). Canada’s record-breaking wild�res in 2023: A �ery wake-up call. Government of Canada. https://natural-resources.canada.ca/simply-science/canadas-record-breaking-wild�res-2023-�ery- wake-call/25303  Partners in Protection. (2003). (rep.). FireSmart: Protecting Your Community from Wild�re. https://www.�resmartcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/FireSmart-Protecting-Your- Community.pdf. Prescribed Fire. (n.d.). Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. https://prescribed�re.ca/cultural-burning/  Province of Alberta. (2024). 2024 Alberta Wildland Urban Interface Guidelines. Ministry of Forestry and Parks. https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/238797a1-ef97-40aa-a0b0-ac9ca76aaa53/resource/6aef5441- d183-45e8-8a6b-4fc8d1a66cb6/download/pses-alberta-wildland-urban-interface-guidelines-2024.pdf  FireSmart Canada. (n.d.). Alberta FireSmart – Resources. https://�resmartalberta.ca/resources/  BC Wild�re Service. (n.d.). (rep.). Firesmart Begins at Home Manual: Reduce the Potential Impacts of Wild�re on Your Home. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/public-safety-and-emergency-services/wild�re-status/prevention/ prevention-home-community/bcws_homeowner_�resmart_manual.pdf District of Saanich. (2023). (rep.). State of Biodiversity Report. https://www.saanich.ca/assets/Parks~Recreation~and~Community~Services/Documents/ State%20of%20Biodiversity%20Report%20-%20FINAL.pdf Government of British Columbia. (2022). How cultural burning enhances landscapes and lives. Canadian Provincial Alberta British Colombia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 204 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 205 https://blog.gov.bc.ca/bcwild�re/how-cultural-burning-enhances-landscapes-and-lives/  City of Toronto. (2002). (rep.). High Park Woodland & Savannah Management Plan. https://highparknature.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/HighParkMgmtPlan.pdf High Park Nature. (2024). Prescribed Burns in High Park. https://highparknature.org/article/prescribed-burns-in-high-park/ Martin, S. (2024). Indigenous wisdom guides High Park’s traditional and prescribed burn. Excalibur. https://www.excal.on.ca/news/2024/05/02/indigenous-wisdom-guides-high-parks-traditional-and- prescribed-burn/ United Nations O�ce for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2024). Canada wild�res, 2023 - Forensic analysis. https://www.undrr.org/resource/canada-wild�res-2023-forensic-analysis  Susskind, J. (2023). Playbook for the Pyrocene: Design Strategies for Fire-Prone Communities. https://swacdn.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/13195714/Playbook-for-the- Pyrocene-Design-Strategies-for-Fire-Prone-Communities.pdf The Climate & Wild�re Institute. (n.d.). Intentional �re. https://intentional�re.org/ Abo-El-Ezz, A., AlShaikh, F., Farzam, A., Côté, M. O., & Nollet, M. J. (2023). Post-�re Damage Assessment of Buildings at the Wildland Urban Interface. Paper presented at the Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34593-7_55 Bénichou, N., Adelzadeh, M., Singh, J., Gomaa, I., Elsagan, N., Kinateder, M., . . . Sultan, M. (2021). National guide for wildland-urban-interface �res: guidance on hazard and exposure assessment, property protection, community resilience and emergency planning to minimize the impact of wildland-urban interface �res (196p). National Research Council of Canada. https://doi.org/10.4224/40002647  Beverly, J. L., Leverkus, S. E. R., Cameron, H., & Schroeder, D. (2020). Stand-level fuel reduction treatments and �re behaviour in Canadian boreal conifer forests. Fire, 3(3), 1-23. doi:10.3390/�re3030035 Calkin, D. E., Cohen, J. D., Finney, M. A., & Thompson, M. P . (2014). How risk management can prevent future wild�re disasters in the wildland-urban interface. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Ontario Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 205 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 206 of the United States of America, 111(2), 746-751. doi:10.1073/pnas.1315088111 Copes-Gerbitz, K., Dickson-Hoyle, S., Ravensbergen, S. L., Hagerman, S. M., Daniels, L. D., & Coutu, J. (2022). Community Engagement with Proactive Wild�re Management in British Columbia, Canada: Perceptions, Preferences, and Barriers to Action. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 5. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.829125 Davis, K. T., Peeler, J., Fargione, J., Haugo, R. D., Metlen, K. L., Robles, M. D., & Woolley, T. (2024). Tamm review: A meta-analysis of thinning, prescribed �re, and wild�re effects on subsequent wild�re severity in conifer dominated forests of the Western US. Forest Ecology and Management, 561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2024.121885  Erni, S. Johnston, L. Boulanger, Y., Manka, F., Bernier, P ., Eddy, B. ... Gauthier, S. (2021). Exposure of the Canadian wildland–human interface and population to wildland �re, under current and future climate conditions. Canadian Journal of Fire Research, 51(9), 1357-1367. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2020-0422  Gaur, A., Bénichou, N., Armstrong, M., and Hill, F. (2021). Potential future changes in wild�re weather and behavior around 11 Canadian cities. Urban Climate, 35, 100735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100735 Lambert, E. (2021). Shackan Indian Band and Xwisten First Nation: Reinstating cultural burning practices. The Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction. https://www.iclr.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/11_cities_adapt_wild�re_SIB_and_XFN.pdf Moritz, M. A., Batllori, E., Bradstock, R. A., Gill, A. M., Handmer, J., Hessburg, P . F., . . . Syphard, A. D. (2014). Learning to coexist with wild�re. Nature, 515(7525), 58-66. doi:10.1038/nature13946 Public Health Agency of Canada. (2023). Public health risk pro�le: Wild�res in Canada, 2023. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/phac-aspc/documents/services/emergency-preparedness- response/rapid-risk-assessments-public-health-professionals/risk-pro�le-wild�res-2023/wild�re-risk- pro�le.pdf  Safford, H. D., Schmidt, D. A., & Carlson, C. H. (2009). Effects of fuel treatments on �re severity in an area of wildland-urban interface, Angora Fire, Lake Tahoe Basin, California. Forest Ecology and Management, 258(5), 773-787. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.05.024 Stocks, B. J., & Martell, D. L. (2016). Forest �re management expenditures in Canada: 1970-2013. Forestry Chronicle, 92(3), 298-306. doi:10.5558/tfc2016-056 Your Forest Podcast. (n.d.). Good Fire Podcast – List. https://yourforestpodcast.com/good-�re-podcast  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 206 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 207 Equity Considerations in Urban Forestry  Importance of Equity in Urban Forestry Urban forest equity is crucial to addressing the systemic and historical disparities of greening while supporting future environmental resilience. From a social perspective, urban forest equity is crucial to ensuring that marginalized and underserved communities receive fair investments in green spaces, that all communities have access to the health bene�ts of trees and greening, and experience equal opportunity to foster strong social connections, recreate, and thrive within urban green spaces. From an ecological perspective, urban forest equity is important for supporting biodiversity and overall ecosystem functioning, which improves climate resilience, provides wildlife habitat, and mitigates pollution. Trends The importance of tree equity issues in Canada is gaining attention locally and nationally (Watkins & Gerrish, 2018). Urban forestry conferences, action plans, Highlights Equity perspectives Equitable urban forestry from social and ecological perspectives. Environmental justice Inclusive decision-making, equitable funding, community engagement, and education. Multicultural considerations People of different cultures and urban forestry. Labour equity Gender inequality in the �elds of urban forestry, forestry, and arboriculture. Where to start Solutions and strategies for funding, planning, and engagement. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 207 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 208 management strategies, and research are more intentionally integrating equity into their work across sectors in all regions. Some key research hubs contributing to knowledge advancements are: The University of British Columbia, The University of Toronto, Carleton University, Concordia University, UQAM, and Université Laval – to name a few. Researchers at these universities focus on social, environmental, or technological (such as AI) equity considerations.   Key knowledge includes: • Access to tree canopy: There has been a signi�cant shift in Canada, with more attention being paid to planting projects in underserved areas through the 2 Billion Trees program.  • Integrating a lens of environmental justice, for example, considering how temperature regulation can mitigate health risks due to extreme heat, particularly in low-canopy, health-vulnerable communities.   • Inclusive decision-making involving residents and ensuring their voices shape design, priorities, and practices. • Equitable funding for tree planting and long-term maintenance to ensure disadvantaged areas are not overburdened with tree care post-planting.  • Community engagement to provide education, jobs, and training opportunities to foster long-term stewardship: A critical part of this is recognizing the role of Indigenous knowledge and Indigenous-led greening in community engagement to achieve equitable green spaces in planning and operations; in addition, increasing diverse group representation in urban forestry career pathways to support recognitional justice – they need to see themselves in the pro�ling of the �eld to feel welcome (Vabi & Konijnendijk, 2021) • Lastly, there is emerging interest in credentials for urban forest professionals to support the "legitimization" of their role and skillsets (O'Herrin et al., 2023).  Defining Equity in Urban Forestry The common de�nitions of urban forest equity in Canada center on the fair distribution of tree-related bene�ts, particularly in marginalized or underserved areas. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 208 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 209 Urban forest equity strives to ensure that all residents, regardless of income, race, or location, have equal access to the environmental, social, and economic bene�ts that urban trees provide. Emerging research has shown that equity in urban forests goes beyond access to green space and should be broader to address three areas: distributional, recognitional, and procedural equity and/or justice (Nesbitt et al., 2019). These are not mutually exclusive. Distributional equity refers to the fair spread of urban forest resources and bene�ts across communities. Recognitional equity acknowledges and respects diverse identities, histories, and perspectives within communities. It is about understanding who lives in a community: where they come from, their unique needs, and the barriers they face in accessing green spaces. Lastly, procedural equity focuses on the fairness of decision-making processes, ensuring that all community members have a voice in urban forestry projects and that their voices in�uence outcomes. Urban Tree Canopy Distribution and Access to Green Space  Urban forests are the �rst and only experience of nature for many, and these forests shape the experiences of nature for millions of Canadian residents, making access to urban green spaces a crucial topic in urban forest strategies; a national poll indicates that 95% of Canadians agree that access to green spaces is important to their quality of life (Environics Research, 2017). However, not all urban residents bene�t equitably from the ecological services that urban forests and green spaces provide.  To date, urban forests have been distributed inequitably in Canadian cities. On average, lower-income neighbourhoods (below 50% of median household incomes) and marginalized neighbourhoods (disempowered or lacking the capacity to participate and gain full respect in society) have less green space and canopy cover than wealthier, predominantly white neighbourhoods (GoC 2022; Public Health Ontario, 2021; Cusick, 2021). In many Canadian cities, neighbourhoods with lower- income households and larger Black, Indigenous, and people of colour (BIPOC) populations were found to have up to 20-30% less canopy cover (Wittingham et al. 2022). When considering the physical and environmental health bene�ts that urban Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 209 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 210 forests provide, the disparities in tree canopy distribution and inequitable access to these bene�ts raise a question of social equity (Schell et al., 2020). Moreover, in areas suffering from poverty and racialization, women have been found to use green spaces less frequently if they perceive them to be 'unsafe' due to poor lighting, maintenance, or cleanliness (Braçe, Garrido-Cumbrera & Correa-Fernández, 2021).  These �ndings show that low-income neighbourhoods, marginalized communities, racialized groups, and women do not equitably enjoy the bene�ts provided by quality green spaces. Addressing these issues and the equitable distribution of tree canopy and environmental bene�ts is essential for building just and sustainable treed urban communities and a healthy society. Community well-being, social inclusion, gender equity, environmental health, and climate resilience in racialized and low-income neighbourhoods will all bene�t from equitable and strategic urban forest planning (Bikomeye et al., 2021).  Canada is not immune to the issues of urban forest equity in its cities and towns. For example, in major cities such as Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Surrey, and Quebec City, the lower tree canopy cover has a signi�cant negative correlation with poverty and racialization (Wittingham et al. 2022). In an effort to address the problem, municipalities like the cities of Ottawa and Toronto have made equitable access to urban forests a guiding principle in their urban forest plans and strategies (Engage Ottawa, 2024). However, despite the efforts, urban forest planning (meaning their development and planning) and tree canopy equality implementation in Canadian cities are still lacking, and equity strategies or engagement plans to assist speci�c to marginalized communities still have a minor impact (Mullenix, 2022). Immigration and Multicultural Considerations How Canadian citizens feel about their urban forest matters in terms of what they receive and bene�t from, and whether and how they are willing to engage in urban forest conservation and management. Researchers often measure residents' attitudes toward green spaces through public surveys, and the information obtained can help municipalities better manage their urban forests (Jennings et al., 2016). However, people living in different regions may have different attitudes and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 210 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 211 preferences related to urban forests or may face unique barriers to their ability to participate in public referendums, surveys, and engagement opportunities (Avolio et al., 2015). Language barriers to new immigrants and people of various cultures can go unconsidered when municipalities conduct public surveys or hold open public participatory meetings (Ornelas Van Horne et al., 2023).  Additionally, low-income communities may lack time, funds, and access to the technology required to participate in events- time off work, childcare, internet, and computers/smartphones are more accessible in higher-income communities, but to many low-income Canadians, these things are luxuries that prevent participation (Chianelli, 2019). Meaningful public discourse cannot be achieved without considering barriers to engagement when discussing urban planning and environmental issues, especially in marginalized communities where sustainable and equitable planning is that much more signi�cant.  Moreover, participation and inclusion of new Canadians, BIPOC, and multicultural individuals are also vital to building equitable urban forestry. Due to its far-reaching bene�ts, urban forestry involves multidisciplinary teams with diverse skills and knowledge. Foresters, urban planners, landscape architects, arborists, scientists, and community leaders help create healthy and sustainable urban forests, and this multidisciplinary �eld can greatly bene�t from the inclusion of people from diverse backgrounds and experiences.  Labour and Gender Equity Labour and gender equity are also crucial issues in the �elds of urban forestry and arboriculture in Canada, where both sectors have traditionally been male-dominated. Labour equity focuses on ensuring fair representation, remuneration, and career advancement opportunities for individuals from all backgrounds. This issue is particularly important as the urban forestry profession seeks to diversify its workforce and attract more varied talent. Gender equity, on the other hand, speci�cally addresses the persistent underrepresentation of women in urban forestry and arboriculture, where women often occupy lower-level roles and encounter obstacles to career advancement due to systemic biases and discrimination (Bardekjian et al., 2019; Kuhns et al., 2004). Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 211 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 212 Recent efforts, such as mentorship/training programs and workshops aimed at reducing barriers to entry, are working to create more inclusive environments for women and other underrepresented groups in the �eld of urban forestry (City of Toronto, 2023; FSC, 2022). The biennial Canadian Urban Forest Conference, coordinated by Tree Canada in partnership with a host city, along with initiatives like Free to Grow, Women in Forestry, and Women in Wood networks, are helping to bring professionals together and advocate for a more equitable, diverse, and inclusive workforce (Free to Grow in Forestry, 2021; Women in Forestry, n.d.; Women in Wood, 2017). These initiatives are critical as urban forests play an increasingly vital role in the climate resilience and social well-being of Canadian cities, necessitating a broader range of voices and perspectives for their sustainable management.  As the �eld of urban forestry continues to evolve, addressing labour and gender equity within the profession will be essential for ensuring that all professionals, regardless of gender or background, can contribute meaningfully to the design, planning, and management of urban forests (Bardekjian, 2016; Bardekjian et al., 2019).  Solutions and Strategies An equity-based approach to urban greening should be adopted to ensure that Canadian cities can work towards canopy cover goals without propagating further social and economic disparity (Angelo, MacFarlane, Sirigotis & Millard-Ball, 2022; Bassett, 2024; Puric-Mladenovic, 2024). Increasing canopy cover/tree planting goals are part of many Canadian cities' urban forest management plans, and urban greening in low-income/racialized areas presents an opportunity to address two issues at once. However, increasing canopy cover in underserved areas faces some challenges, such as a lack of funding, the absence of a planning process that values trees and long-term tree survival, and weak public engagement with communities that need trees the most (Mullinex 2022). Additionally, a lack of physical space to plant trees and sometimes environmental contaminants can lower chances of tree survival (Danford et al., 2014; Wattenhofer and Johnson, 2021). Where to Start Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 212 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 213 There are several tools and methods that already exist for addressing inequality in urban forestry. For example, Statistics Canada created a tool to address the need to understand gentri�cation in a Canadian context. The tool is called GENUINE, which stands for Gentri�cation, Urban Interventions, and Equity (see Team INTERACT, 2016), and it automatically populates maps for several Canadian cities across four separate measures (Firth et al., 2021). In addition to assessing what is already there through available tools, there are recognition and certi�cation programs such as the Arbor Day Foundation's Tree Cities of the World (TCOW) program and the Sustainable Forestry Initiative's (SFI) Urban and Community Forestry standards that offer structured guidelines and criteria for successful management. The �rst step is identifying a community’s equity-related goals; once goals are established, these kinds of tools can be helpful, staged approaches for planning and review.  Funding To address the lack of funding for urban forestry activities, some municipalities, including Toronto and Winnipeg, support urban forestry grants and incentive programs (City of Toronto, 2021). Integrating urban forestry funding into yearly municipal budget planning is another way to ensure funding allocation to urban forest management. Alternatively, federal funding programs such as the 2 Billion Trees Program (GoC, 2023) and the Forest Innovation Program (NRCan, 2023) should work to enhance equitable access to urban forests and sustainable management of urban green spaces, while the Natural Infrastructure Fund (GoC, 2024) should improve natural infrastructure in underserved communities, which can reduce heat stress, limit extreme weather damage, and support stormwater management (Wittingham et al., 2021). Additionally, the federal government should increase funding availability for municipalities to protect and maintain existing trees and expand urban tree canopy equitably and fairly. One success story is the Growing Canada's Community Canopies (GCCC) program delivered in partnership between Tree Canada and the Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM), where there are two broad streams of funding: the �rst is for increasing canopy and getting trees planted, the second is for capacity building in all other areas that are required for urban forest sustainability.  Planning Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 213 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 214 Planning processes need to prioritize equity by using evidence-based decision- making informed by tools such as current tree inventories and the Tree Equity Index, income data, and immigration and BIPOC data (Ordonez et al., 2024). Additionally, municipalities must assess current canopy cover data compared to canopy goals while supplementing urban greening decisions by identifying areas with lower canopy cover, which have low Tree Equity Index values (Fleming and Steenberg, 2023). Integrated and intersectional planning processes for urban trees should be created, with adequate municipal and provincial funding allocation towards increasing urban tree cover equity across municipalities in racialized and marginalized communities (Jennings et al., 2019). Furthermore, these planned urban forests/green spaces must be accessible (within 300m of residences) and be of good enough quality to su�ciently supply bene�ts to underserved communities (Wittingham et al. 2022).  Engagement Finally, fostering public engagement by building stakeholder relationships between governments, academia, industry, community organizations, practitioners, and citizens is vital to sustainable and equitable urban forest management (Campbell, Svendsen, Johnson & Plitt, 2022). Community members should be engaged from the beginning stages of planning processes and consulted throughout the planning and execution process. Nurturing ongoing relationships with existing neighbourhood associations and stewardship programs (or creating them where they do not exist) is an important step in starting discourse with residents. Consulting community leaders on equitable and accessible suggestions for building community interest and participation should be part of the beginning stages of public engagement strategies. Outreach efforts should be the predominant recipients of allotted urban greening budgets for target neighbourhoods in the beginning stages to ensure consideration of diverse perspectives, proper community consultation, and meaningful community engagement. Relationship-building with the people impacted by urban forest inequity can help make sure community needs are considered and responded to while building programs that are sustainable, successful, and robust (Wittingham, 2022). Resources Sources Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 214 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 215 American Forests. (2021). 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E., & Day, S. (2023). Borrowed Credentials and Surrogate Professional Societies: A Critical Analysis of the Urban Forestry Profession. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 49(3), 107–136. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 218 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 219 https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2023.009 Ordóñez Barona, C., Jain, A., Heppner, M., St Denis, A., Boyer, D., Lane, J., . . . Conway, T. (2024). Gaps in the implementation of urban forest management plans across Canadian cities. Landscape and Urban Planning, 251, 105168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2024.105168  Parish, J. (2020). Re-wilding Parkdale? Environmental gentri�cation, settler colonialism, and the recon�guration of nature in 21st century Toronto. Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, 3(1), 263-286. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2514848619868110?journalCode=enea Public Health Ontario. (2021). 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Race in nature stewardship: an autoethnography of two racialised volunteers in urban ecology. Environmental Research: Ecology, 3(3), 035006. https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-664X/ad7033  Team INTERACT. (2016). GENUINE: Gentri�cation, Urban Interventions, and Equity – Interactive maps. https://teaminteract.ca/develop/gentri�cation/gentrif_test_allCMA.html Vabi, V. & Konijnendijk, C. (2021). The Urgency and Opportunity to Increase the Access of All Canadians to Urban Forests: An interview with Dr. Cecil Konijnendijk on the 3-30-300 rule for creating greener and healthier cities to mark National Tree Day on September 22. Nature Canada. https://naturecanada.ca/news/blog/the-urgency-and-opportunity-to-increase-the-access-of-all- canadians-to-urban-forests/  Vogt, J., Hauer, R. J., & Fischer, B. C. (2015). Urban forestry and arboriculture as interdisciplinary environmental science: importance and incorporation of other disciplines. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 6(2), 371–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-015-0309-x Watkins, S. L., & Gerrish, E. (2018). The relationship between urban forests and race: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Management, 209, 152–168. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 219 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 220 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.12.021  Wattenhofer, D.J. and Johnson, G.R. (2021). Understanding why young urban trees die can improve future success. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 64,127247. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1618866721002727?via%3Dihub    Whittingham, E., Vabi, V., Lalloo, S., and Hak, S. (2022). Canada's Urban Forests: Bringing the canopy to all. Nature Canada. https://naturecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Nature-Canada-Report-Tree-Equity.pdfhttps:// naturecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Nature-Canada-Report-Tree-Equity.pdf    Wolf, K. L., Lam S. T., McKeen, J. K., Richardson, G. R. A., van den Bosch, M., and Bardekjian A. C. (2020). Urban Trees and Human Health: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12):4371. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7345658/ Women in Forestry. (n.d.). Women in Forestry – About [webpage]. https://www.womeninforestry.ca/  Women in Wood. (2017). Women in Wood – About [webpage]. https://www.womeninwood.ca/about  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 220 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 221 Awareness and Community Stewardship What sets urban forestry apart from other branches of forestry is its direct connection and relevance to people, and its role in providing social and ecological bene�ts that extend to all urban residents, not just individuals or speci�c groups. People around the world are becoming increasingly involved in their communities, and recent decades have seen a remarkable rise in community engagement with urban forestry. Today, urban residents are more concerned than ever about the greenery in their neighborhoods and the health of their trees. They are eager to contribute to the protection and care of these natural resources. This growing awareness about the importance of urban forests and their management has led to an increase in public and community participation in urban forest stewardship across Canada. Awareness and stewardship in urban forestry are driven by people caring about their communities and wanting to be involved in tree care and management (Su et al., 2022). There is a diversity of perceptions about urban forests and green spaces, and many reasons why people and communities get engaged. Whether for aesthetics, recreation, or a general appreciation for the environment, people feel connected to the trees in their cities. A recent survey found that around 90% of urban residents felt some sort of connection to urban trees, and nearly half responded that they had a ‘favourite tree’ (University of Derby, 2023).  A large percentage of urban dwellers (over 85%) acknowledged that trees contribute to cleaner air and water, wildlife habitat, Highlights Awareness and stewardship Public awareness and involvement in urban forest management. Stewardship and NGOs NGO involvement in stewardship and support of community urban forestry. Community stewardship Public and citizen engagement in urban forest management and conservation. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 221 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 222 and better mental health. This shows that urban residents are aware of the value and bene�ts they receive from urban trees and want to contribute to their continued stewardship (Conway & Scott, 2020; Damian, 2020). In many ways, the success of urban forestry depends on involvement from multiple stakeholders and partners, including organizations, various levels of government, and citizens. There are also many non-government organizations, organized and uno�cial, that contribute to raising awareness and supporting stewardship of urban forestry. Community Stewardship in Canadian Municipalities Many municipalities in Canada have urban forestry strategies, many of which have explicit objectives concerning community awareness, stewardship, and involvement in urban forest management. Stewardship and community engagement are major components of urban forest management, where communities and individuals help municipalities. Community stewardship is a cornerstone of effective urban forest management, whether through tree planting events, monitoring and inventory efforts, or just caring for public and private trees in a city neighbourhood. Additionally, many municipalities across Canada also provide support and funding for community members interested in contributing to urban forestry. For example, municipalities such as Ottawa, Kitchener, and Halifax directly acknowledge in their urban forest master plans that community involvement and stewardship are essential for long-lasting, proactive management. The city of London, Ontario created a program called Neighbourhood ReLeaf to encourage community members to get involved in planting and caring for urban trees by providing funding for trees and planting events, guidance for caring for and maintaining urban trees, and education about the human bene�ts and ecological value provided by urban trees (ReForest London, n.d).  The city of Vancouver also recently put out a call for local support in maintaining urban trees during drought seasons. The city published a how-to guide to inform residents on the importance of urban trees, what their needs are, and how to keep them healthy and watered during the summer months (City of Vancouver, 2023). Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 222 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 223 Various other Canadian municipalities across the country have embarked on similar endeavours, including the City of Oakville (2024), the City of Wolfville (2024), the City of Saddle Hills (Bozic, 2024), and the City of Saskatoon (2024). Toronto leads Canadian municipalities in the robustness of its urban forest management program, being one of Canada’s largest leaders in terms of investing in urban forest stewardship (City of Toronto, 2024). In six years, the city’s Urban Forestry Grants and Incentives Program invested over $20.5 million in urban forestry, funding over 200 independent projects across the city and planting upwards of 100,000 trees (City of Toronto, 2024). The program supports partnerships and collaborations with citizens, landowners, and non-pro�t organizations to bolster the city’s priorities outlined in its strategic forest management plan (City of Toronto, 2013).  The city of Edmonton also supports a well-established urban forest stewardship program called the Grow Together program, which allows the city to expand urban forests by partnering with community groups and neighbourhood associations interested in learning more about urban forest stewardship and planting more trees within their neighbourhood (City of Edmonton, n.d.). The program provides educational events, tree planting efforts, and support for citizens looking to engage in proper urban forest management.  But stewardship doesn’t just mean helping hands and planting trees; it includes engaging citizens in envisioning the future of their urban forest by engaging them in urban forest management planning. Engaging community members across Canada to develop guiding principles, intended outcomes, responsibility expectations, and speci�c strategies and actions for management plans can support the most effective urban forest management. For example, Edmonton, like several other municipalities across Canada, has an urban forest management plan that is advised by community members and scienti�c experts. Residential support for urban forestry policy, including policies speci�cally targeting residential areas, is an understudied component of successful urban forest management. This ties into the awareness aspect of community engagement, and cities are beginning to incorporate open meetings, information sessions, and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 223 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 224 avenues for public input regarding forestry goals, desired outcomes, and policy application (Conway and Wang, 2014). NGO Groups  Non-government organizations are an important part of urban forest stewardship efforts in Canada. They promote education and information about urban forest stewardship, sustainable development, and community engagement in municipal forestry management. These organizations hold workshops, public speaking events, and educational meetings so citizens can understand how to get involved in urban forestry. Such efforts involving local communities in urban forestry initiatives result in engaged residents who are more likely to support and care for urban trees. This, in turn, can supplement municipal tree care efforts and ensure urban forestry's long- term success and sustainability (Bourque et al., 2021).   NGOs' contributions are critical to stewardship initiatives outside of the city-owned land, but some NGOs also often support municipal initiatives. There are many creative urban forest partnerships and initiatives where NGOs partner with cities, governments, and foundations to deliver urban forest stewardship and education, and raise awareness. Non-pro�t organizations such as the Green Municipal Fund, Network of Nature, and Tree Canada provide tree-planting and urban forestry grants or lists of grants for municipalities and other organizations in Canada, helping to create connections and partnerships between communities and environmental organizations (Green Municipal Fund, n.d.; Network of Nature, 2024; Tree Canada, n.d.). NGOs also contribute funds and labour to urban forestry initiatives. They mobilize donations from industry and corporate groups and often broker public-private partnerships. For example, the McMaster Marauders (Rukavina, 2024) and sports events like the Allstate Soccer Show in Calgary (PlanIT Geo, n.d.) come together to raise money for tree planting efforts in their communities. Large-scale citizen-led groups are also important in starting and maintaining stewardship initiatives. In Ontario, citizens in the township of Centre Wellington assembled an organization called Tree Trust, which is dedicated to raising Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 224 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 225 awareness about old and irreplaceable urban trees in hopes of preserving them (Tree Trust Centre Wellington, n.d.). By educating residents about the value of large old trees, not just for aesthetic purposes but also for their carbon sequestration/storage capacity, Tree Trust has been able to o�cially protect over 80 large, mature trees in multiple chapters across southern Ontario, and is working to expand its efforts. In Manitoba, residents have coalesced to form an organization called Trees Winnipeg with the goal of protecting urban trees, speci�cally with a coalition to save elm trees, which are suffering from a fatal fungal infection known as Dutch Elm Disease (DED). By building awareness and educating Winnipeg residents about how to recognize signs and symptoms of DED, the organization is able to increase its monitoring bandwidth and increase the probability of catching incidences of DED before they progress too far or spread (Trees Winnipeg, n.d.).  The public and residents can take part in certain tree maintenance tasks, such as caring for young trees. Several programs and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) provide education and assistance to community groups and residents for maintaining urban trees. One example is the Citizen Pruners program, launched by Tree Trust, which teaches volunteers how to properly prune trees and also keeps community members engaged in urban forestry beyond the initial planting phase. This training is conducted under the supervision of professional arborists, and the program effectively enlists volunteers to help maintain young trees following planting efforts, ensuring proper growth and survivorship. The program has been piloted in Elora, Thunder Bay, and the Long Branch neighborhood of Toronto (EEC, n.d.).  Similarly, in Vancouver, BC, the TreeKeepers' Citizen Forester Program, led by certi�ed arborists, educates Citizen Foresters on selecting, planting, and caring for urban trees, equipping them with knowledge they can share with their community (Tree Keepers, n.d.). Tree Canada, through its Community Tree Grants, supports community-led tree planting and tree care initiatives across the country by providing funding and resources to municipalities, Indigenous communities, and non-pro�t organizations for tree planting and stewardship projects (Tree Canada, n.d.). There are efforts to raise awareness and appreciation for large trees across Canada. On North Pender Island in British Columbia, the Raincoast Conservation Fund has organized an effort to register big trees in an effort to increase opportunities for community engagement in conservation. Using tools like iNaturalist, residents are Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 225 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 226 encouraged to submit large trees to the registry in efforts to protect them from logging and development (Willis, 2023). Ontario also has several initiatives to raise awareness and appreciation for large trees, such as the Tree Trust program, which focuses on preserving mature trees, recognizing their substantial environmental and social values, and funding their professional care.  Community Groups Community involvement is one of the pillars of urban forestry in Canada. At the local scale, neighbourhood organizations and community groups are responsible for many of the most successful grassroots movements in Canadian urban forestry. Usually born out of concern for speci�c geographic areas, these local volunteering organizations mobilize around certain topics, like saving a park from development, restoring a degraded site, protecting certain trees and tree species in urban areas, conducting tree inventories, and monitoring their urban forest. For example, Vancouver employs an urban forestry strategy that provides tools for maintaining healthy, resilient urban green spaces by increasing community involvement in forest stewardship, providing education and information to urban residents about the bene�ts and importance of urban forests, and creating programs to improve access to urban green spaces (City of Vancouver, n.d.). In 2015, the city of Vancouver developed a strategic urban forestry plan to be implemented over �ve years, using community involvement and stewardship to achieve concrete objectives and goals guided by science, with the end goal of protecting and improving urban forests and biodiversity (City of Vancouver, 2015).  Neighbourwoods© is Canada’s �rst urban forest citizen science program, founded by Dr. Kenney and Dr. Puric-Mladenovic to connect academic research with community involvement. They pioneered community engagement and citizen science initiatives for forest conservation that train citizens to inventory and monitor urban trees, assess their health, and identify potential areas for planting. The program has been instrumental in urban forest stewardship on private lands, training hundreds of volunteers and numerous communities across Ontario. It has also engaged many students from the Master of Forest Conservation (MFC) program to assist communities with inventory, education, and the creation of relevant reports and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 226 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 227 plans. The standard and spatial data collected have enabled data-driven management and stewardship decisions, leading to the development of community stewardship plans. Data from this program continues to be utilized in applied research related to carbon sequestration, invasive species management, tree growth, risk assessment, and more. Other community efforts, such as a Bioblitz, an event where citizens help identify, inventory, and catalogue different species of plants, insects, and birds, are also a way to increase community involvement in urban biodiversity and stewardship (iNaturalist, 2024). Local efforts to save parks from development, such as the Save City Hall Park effort in Vancouver, are an example of residents coming together to stand up for urban green spaces and become involved in their protection and stewardship (City Hall Watch, 2024).  Overall, awareness and stewardship are some of the most powerful and unique aspects of urban forestry in Canada. Municipalities, NGOs, neighbourhoods, and individuals are all vital in the effort to manage urban forests in Canadian cities effectively and sustainably.  Resources Bardekjian, A., Kenney, A. & Rosen, M. (n.d.). Trends in Canada’s Urban Forests. Tree Canada. https://treecanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Article-1-EN-CUFN-Trends-in-Canada’s-Urban- Forests.pdf    Damian, M. (2020). Ontario Nature blog – The importance of urban forest stewardship. Ontario Nature https://ontarionature.org/the-importance-of-urban-forest-stewardship-blog/   GoodWork. (2024). Environmental Organizations in Canada. https://www.goodwork.ca/page/environmental-groups    Green Communities Canada. (n.d.). About us. https://greencommunitiescanada.org    Network of Nature. (2024). Community planting grants directory. https://networkofnature.org/community-planting-grants.htm   PlanIT Geo. (n.d.). The ultimate guide to urban forestry funding. https://planitgeo.com/library/ultimate-guide-to-urban-forestry-funding/   Sustainable Forestry Initiative. (2024). SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Standard. Canadian National Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 227 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 228 https://forests.org/s�-urban-forestry-standard/     Tree Canada. (n.d.). Canadian Urban Forest Network. https://treecanada.ca/research-engagement/canadian-urban-forest-network/    Tree Canada. (n.d.). Partner with us. https://treecanada.ca/partner-with-us-2/  Tree Canada. (n.d.). Grants & Awards – Community Tree Grants. https://treecanada.ca/grants-awards/community-tree-grants/ Urban Forest Associates, Inc. (n.d.). Organizations. http://ufora.ca/index.php/resources/links/    City of Calgary. (n.d.). Caring for our urban forest. https://www.calgary.ca/parks/trees.html  City of Edmonton. (2024). Grow Together Program. https://www.edmonton.ca/residential_neighbourhoods/gardens_lawns_trees/grow-together Government of Alberta – Sustainable Forest Management: Compliance and enforcement. https://www.alberta.ca/forest-management-in-alberta  City of Vancouver. (2015). Rewilding Vancouver – from sustaining to �ourishing. https://vancouver.ca/�les/cov/enviromental-education-stewardship-action-plan.pdf City of Vancouver. (n.d.). Parks, forestry & recreation. https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/accountability-operations-customer-service/city- administration/staff-directory-divisions-and-customer-service/parks-forestry-recreation/ City of Vancouver. (2023). Protect the urban forest and it will protect us: water thirsty trees. https://vancouver.ca/news-calendar/protect-the-urban-forest-and-it-will-protect-us-water-thirsty- trees.aspx Tree Keepers. (n.d.). Citizen Forester – Be a citizen forester! https://treekeepers.ca/citizen-forester.html Willis, A. (2023). Big tree registries offer an opportunity for community engagement and conservation this summer. Retrieved from Raincoast Conservation Foundation https://www.raincoast.org/2023/07/big-tree-registries-community-engagement-conservation/  Canadian Provincial Alberta British Colombia Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 228 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 229 Trees Winnipeg. (2021). About Dutch Elm Disease: https://www.treeswinnipeg.org/our-urban-forest/urban-forest-threats/dutch-elm-disease  Trees Winnipeg. (2024). About our urban forest. https://www.treeswinnipeg.org/ City of Fredericton. (n.d.). Urban Forests and Greenspaces [webpage]. https://www.fredericton.ca/en/about-fredericton/environmental-initiatives/climate-change-adaptation/ urban-forests-and-greenspaces  Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. (2015). Stewardship Association of Municipalities – Member communities. https://www.gov.nl.ca/ffa/wildlife/stewardship/sam/  Stewardship Association of Municipalities. (2019). Municipal Placemaking in Newfoundland and Labrador. https://www.samnl.org/municipal-placemaking  Duinker, P . (2023). Urban Forest Management and Research in Halifax, NS. School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University: Halifax, NS. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b3babac70e802454aede034/ t/64c1fa5457ef495d2b332e1f/1690434133490/ Duinker_2023_UF_Management%26ResearchAtDal_230710.pdf  Government of Nova Scotia. (2021). Private Lands, Stewardship and Outreach Division: Woodlot management education program. https://novascotia.ca/natr/plso/  City of Toronto. (2013). Sustaining & Expanding the Urban Forest: Toronto’s Strategic Forest Management Plan. https://www.toronto.ca/data/parks/pdf/trees/sustaining-expanding-urban-forest-management- plan.pdf  City of Toronto. (2024). Urban Forestry Grants & Incentives. Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland & Labrador Nova Scotia Ontario Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 229 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 230 https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/water-environment/environmental-grants-incentives/urban- forestry-grants-and-incentives/ EEC -Elora Environment Centre. (n.d.). Citizen Pruner. https://eloraenvironmentcentre.ca/citizen-pruner/  Kenney, W.A. and Puri-Mladenovic, D. (2018). Neighbourwoods Neighbourhoods. http://neighbourwoods.org/NWNhoods.html  ReForest London. (n.d.). Neighbourhood ReLeaf. https://www.reforestlondon.ca/programs/neighbourhood-releaf/ Tree Trust Centre Wellington. (n.d.). FAQ. https://treetrust.ca/common-questions/ City of Charlottetown. (2024). Forest Restoration Projects – City of Charlottetown. https://www.charlottetown.ca/environment___sustainability/urbanforestry/ charlottetown_s_urban_forest/forest_restoration_projects  Government of Prince Edward Island. (2020). Agreement to grow protected areas and urban forest. https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/news/agreement-to-grow-protected-areas-and-urban-forest? wbdisable=true  Daniel, A. (2021). Quebec region urban forestry update – December 2021. Retrieved from Tree Canada https://treecanada.ca/article/quebec-urban-forestry-update-december-2021/  Gouvernement de Québec. (2024). Re�ection Tables on the Future of the Forest, Summary Report. Ministère des Ressources naturelles et des Forêts: Québec, QC. https://cdn-contenu.quebec.ca/cdn-contenu/forets/documents/gestion/RA_TRAF_ang.pdf  Government of Saskatchewan. (n.d.). Conservation and Stewardship in Saskatchewan Parks. https://www.saskatchewan.ca/residents/parks-culture-heritage-and-sport/provincial-park- management/conservation-programs-in-provincial-parks  Community-Based Forest Management Planning in the Yukon under Comprehensive Land Claims: https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wp-content/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/PR_2001-28.pdf? @ Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskkatchewan Yukon Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 230 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 231 ver=2016-02-25-091420-633 Wortley, D., Krogman, N., and Davidson, D. (2001). The Di�culties with Devolution: Community-Based Forest Management Planning in the Yukon under Comprehensive Land Claims. Sustainable Forest Management Network: Edmonton, AB. https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wp-content/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/PR_2001-28.pdf? ver=2016-02-25-091420-633 Campbell, L. K., Svendsen, E., Capito, J., Auyeung, N., McClain, N., and Savant, N. (2024). Stewardship Salons A guide to collaborative learning spaces that foster and strengthen networks in natural resource stewardship. Retrieved from United states Forest Service https://usfs-public.app.box.com/s/zdxuhl5ucofbncs9qljmtiu6cty5wedl  Erby, A. (2024). Community Engagement Strategies for Urban Forestry Projects. Retrieved from University of Wisconsin – Madison https://leadershipdevelopment.extension.wisc.edu/�les/2024/05/Community-Engagement-Strategies- for-Urban-Forestry-Projects.pdf Green Communities. (2021). Green Communities Guide: Advancing Nature-Based Solutions.  https://greencommunitiesguide.ca/guide/nature-based-solutions  Sheppard, S.R.J., Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C.C., Croy, O., Macias, A., and Barron, S. (2017). Urban forest governance and community engagement. Routledge Handbook of Urban Forestry, 1, 205-221. ISBN 9781315627106  University of Derby. (2023). People love their trees more than their neighbours. https://www.derby.ac.uk/news/2023/people-love-their-trees-more-than-their-neighbours/  Bourque, J., Samson, R., Arnold, J., & Clark, D. (2021). Growing forests in a city. In Case Study [Case Study]. Canadian Institute for Climate Choices. https://climatechoices.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Urban-Trees-study_May11b.pdf  Bozic, T. (2024). Drought and Tree Watering. https://www.saddlehills.ab.ca/news/posts/drought-and-tree-watering/ Butt, S., Smith, S.M., Moola, F., and Conway, T. (2021). The relationship between knowledge and community engagement in local urban forest governance: A case study examining the role of resident association members in Mississauga, Canada. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 60, 127054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127054 City Hall Watch. (2024). New ‘Save City Hall Park’ petition challenges destruction of public park space as part of Broadway Plan staff-proposed revisions. Non-Canadian Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 231 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 232 https://cityhallwatch.wordpress.com/2024/07/02/save-city-hall-park-petition-broadway-plan/  City of Oakville. (2024). Tree Planting, maintenance and replacement of town trees. https://www.oakville.ca/home-environment/trees-woodlands/tree-planting/ City of Saskatoon. (2024). Tree Care. https://www.saskatoon.ca/services-residents/housing-property/city-owned-trees/tree-care  City of Wolfville. (2024). Tree Inventory and Policy. https://wolfvilleblooms.ca/tree-policy Conway, T.M. and Bang, E. (2014). Willing partners? Residential support for municipal urban forestry policies. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 13(2), 234-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.02.003  Conway, T. M. (2016). Tending their urban forest: Residents’ motivations for tree planting and removal. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 17, 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.03.008 Conway, T. M. & Scott, J. L. (2020). Urban Forests in a Changing Climate. https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/greenbelt/pages/14604/attachments/original/1600457503/ UrbanForestsChangingClimate_REPORT_E-ver_REV.pdf?1600457503 Green Municipal Fund. (n.d.). Tree planting – Funding for ambitious and equitable tree planting projects. https://greenmunicipalfund.ca/funding/tree-planting  iNaturalist. (2024). Archived Bioblitz Guide. https://www.inaturalist.org/pages/archived+bioblitz+guide Landry, F. (2022). Greening Toronto to Increase Resilience and Equity: Study on Citizens’ Preferences Regarding the Urban Forest. David Suzuki Foundation. P31. Livingstone, S.W., Cadotte, M.W., & Isaac, M.E. (2018). Ecological engagement determines ecosystem service valuation: A case study from Rouge National Urban Park in Toronto, Canada. Ecosystem Services,30A, 86-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.02.006 Nadeau, S., Beckley, T. M., Huddart Kennedy, E., McFarlane, B. L., and Wyatt, S. (2007). Public views on forest management in New Brunswick: report from a provincial survey. Natural Resources Canada: Fredericton, NB. https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/nr-rn/pdf/en/ForestsCrownLands/ ForestSurvey.pdf  Rukavina, P . (2024). 99 trees for 99 years: McMaster soccer teams participate in celebration for philanthropist Stephen Jarislowsky with tree planting. https://marauders.ca/news/2024/9/10/mens-soccer-99-trees-for-99-years-mcmaster-soccer-teams- participate-in-celebration-for-philanthropist-stephen-jarislowsky-with-tree-planting.aspx   Su et al. (2022). Values and beliefs about urban forests from diverse urban contexts and populations in the Greater Toronto area. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 72, 127589. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 232 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 233 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127589  UBC Forestry. (2023). The rise of urban forestry. https://forestry.ubc.ca/branchlines-articles/the-rise-of-urban-forestry/ Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 233 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 234 Indigenous Collaboration and Integration of ITK The Indigenous Peoples of Canada have lived in harmony with nature and sustainably stewarded lands and forests for many generations. They hold intimate knowledge of the intricacies of the ecosystems and biodiversity of Canada's forests and lands. Their knowledge has been built over numerous generations through direct interaction with the environment and respect for the land. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples have always been in�uential forces on the structure of forests in Canada, but historically, they have rarely been championed as land stewards and knowledge holders. Indigenous people are to this day �ghting to protect their right to cultural practices and values, as well as their inherent and inalienable right to steward Canadian land (Native Land, 2024). Recently, the value of Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK) for conservation and management purposes has been recognized and has come to the forefront of discourse among scientists and practitioners (Sinthumule, 2023; Alexander et al., Highlights Historical land stewardship Indigenous Peoples of Canada, using intimate knowledge of ecosystems, have sustainably managed forests and lands for generations. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) Indigenous knowledge is increasingly recognized as valuable for conservation and land management. Rights and cultural practices Indigenous communities continue to �ght for their cultural practices and the right to steward the land. TEK and Indigenous stewardship in urban areas Potential of weaving TEK with Western scienti�c methods. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 234 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 235 2019). Increasingly, Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) is being viewed as a form of conservation capable of improving traditional Canadian forest management practices. Weaving TEK with Western science knowledge has also been seen as one way to address the historical injustice and exclusion of Indigenous Peoples from management decisions on their land (CCFM, 2024; McGreggor, 2002). Since the �rst settlers set foot on Canadian grounds, land development, land use changes, and urbanization have happened quickly. Permanent settlements, cities, towns, and villages, all products of Western civilization, sprang up across Canada within a few decades of land clearing. As of the early 1900s, and particularly after the Second World War, the existing settlements, cities, towns, and villages grew exponentially and intensi�ed, while many new urban areas were established. This extensive urbanization has driven the growth of the gray infrastructure network (roads, electricity, power lines, etc.) needed to support urban centres and their surrounding areas. As a result of all these changes and economic opportunities in urban areas, Canada's population has become predominantly urban, and this includes Indigenous people. Today, over 800,000 Indigenous people are living in cities in Canada (Trovato & Price, 2024). According to the 2016 Census, about 45% of registered Indigenous, 76% of Non-Status Indigenous, 50% of Inuit, and 70% of Métis live in urban areas (Indigenous Services Canada, 2020).  Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) Indigenous Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) has a signi�cant cultural and traditional value for Indigenous communities and Canadian settlers. TEK has grown and evolved over thousands of years of lived experiences and shaped Canada’s culture and economy. Indigenous peoples held essential knowledge of practices related to navigating the natural environment. They mastered how to navigate waterways and use lakes, rivers, and streams as travel routes. For travelling by water, Indigenous people crafted canoes using birch bark (Marsh & Parrott, 2021) and designed snowshoes for travelling and hunting across the land in snowy months (Atleo & Boron, 2022). Indigenous People, masters in trapping and hunting techniques, taught settlers how animals migrate, how to follow their tracks, and how to trap and skin them. Tapping Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 235 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 236 maple trees to produce maple syrup, a knowledge and skill originally held by Indigenous Peoples in Canada, has become a staple of Canadian culture. While many parks and groups within and around urban areas host maple syrup festivals, demonstrating how the settlers tapped maple trees, they do not necessarily acknowledge and demonstrate Indigenous contribution (Pine, 2016; Moody, 2015; Huron, 2014). Indigenous agricultural practices used by Haudenosaunee included methods such as the "Three Sisters" (corn, beans, and squash), which helped maximize crop yields and retain soil fertility (Decaire, 2012). In the early days of settlement, nature was the �rst medicine, and Indigenous Peoples hold profound knowledge of local plants with healing and medicinal properties. For example, Willow bark (similar to aspirin) was used to relieve pain, and Eastern white cedar was brewed into tea, which was used by settlers to prevent scurvy (Turner, 2019; Durzan, 2009). Indigenous Peoples also have a depth of knowledge in land management practices such as controlled burns to maintain vegetation communities and the associated wildlife on the landscape they rely on. In several cities, controlled �re has been used as a management practice in urban parks, and selective tree felling has also been acknowledged as bene�cial (Moola et al., 2024).  While these Indigenous practices and TEK have been used for survival and economic gain by settlers, shaping the Canadian culture as we know it today, TEK has historically not been acknowledged or honoured (Parks Canada, n.d.). TEK was taken, and proper credit and respect were not given to the Indigenous people who taught and shared their skills and knowledge, and land.  What the settlers did not learn or take from Indigenous people was how not to overcut, overhunt, over�sh, how to respect the land, and how to think for future generations (Dick et al., 2022). Perceptions about the land and values between Indigenous people and the European settlers were also two worlds apart. TEK, along with the abounded resources and land taken from Indigenous people, enabled colonizers to bene�t economically to the point that the economic gains drove deforestation, erosion, pollution, loss of species, the collapse of �sheries, and many other problems caused by looking at the land as a commodity. This quickly led to the eventual control, marginalization, and exclusion of Indigenous Peoples and culture in Canada, causing devastating outcomes that still Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 236 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 237 reverberate today.  Indigenous Stewardship in Urban Canada Since the establishment of permanent settlements and urban areas by colonial settlers, urban trees and gardens and their management in cities and towns have been dominated by Western values, design, and science to the exclusion of Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge and collaboration (Mullenbach et al., 2003). However, Canadian society, including different levels of government and NGOs, is starting to engage Indigenous groups and perspectives in information sessions and at decision-making tables from conservation to land development actions. TEK is increasingly being viewed as a conservation method with the potential to improve traditional Canadian forest management practices while also addressing the historical exclusion of Indigenous peoples from management decisions on their land (CCFM, 2024). In some forest management cases, traditional and cultural activities are integrated in forest management plans where design and mapping of land protection zones are based on TEK (Cheveau et al. 2008). Indigenous Peoples are connected to and dependent on functioning, healthy forest ecosystems and their non-timber forest products, which brings a holistic perspective on how forests should be viewed and managed (Cheveau, Imbeau, Drapeau, & Bélanger, 2008). While Indigenous collaboration at the policy level of forestry requires more attention, there are many pockets of Indigenous stewardship across forested landscapes. For example, designations of "community forests" with management based on local values, beliefs, and decision-making are emerging across Canada in British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec (NRCan, 2024). These community forests represent both industry-joint and Indigenous-led initiatives, which allow for self-determined co- management. With the support of industry and government, Indigenous communities can implement traditional stewardship practices and de�ne their own desired outcomes for urban forest management while working towards forestry goals that are agreed upon by both forestry associations and residents. Effective cooperation and co-management between industry, government, and Indigenous peoples in urban planning can also produce impactful land use and management practices. Recently, several First Nations in Manitoba showcased a Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 237 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 238 landmark display of Indigenous-led urban development by securing the largest urban Indigenous reserve in Canada on the former site of the Winnipeg Kapyong Barracks. With largely Indigenous-led decision-making and strategic planning, green infrastructure (urban forests, water bodies, vegetation) was acknowledged as "vital" to sustainable community building in the Naawi-Oodena Master Plan. The First Nation will use native species for urban vegetation as a means of knowledge-sharing and appreciation of the cultural value of local plants while also creating essential habitat for native species of fauna and pollinators (Canada Lands Company, 2021). Urban forests are a new phenomenon that emerged with the growth of urban centers. They are the result of complex changes and interactions between people and land, and their desire to make cities livable. Though urban forests are a complex mix of native and non-native trees and plants, they often receive a positive response from Indigenous people. Indigenous people, as small groups or individuals, bring their voices to urban areas and are often the �rst ones to stand for nature. They stand for trees, wildlife, and even Eastern white cedar fences in the face of development (Therrien, 2022). They observe the creatures that urban forests host and see what trees offer beyond dollar values.  History, experience, and research have shown that TEK and traditional forestry practices contribute to higher levels of biodiversity and healthier ecosystems (Nitah, 2021). Indigenous people use and manage the land sustainably and respectfully (Fisher et al., 2019). Their historical practices, such as cultural burning and selective tree felling, have now been incorporated into select contemporary forest management plans, with prescribed burns and selective forestry taking place in almost all provinces and territories in Canada. Additionally, when locals are empowered to steward and manage urban forests, these forests tend to be more resilient, biodiverse, and socio-economically bene�cial (NRCan, 2023). The incorporation of traditional practices such as prescribed burns, tree felling, pollinator gardens, and native plant protection into contemporary urban forestry is vital to not only fostering sustainable urban forest management practices but also a fundamental step towards reconciliation (see Tree Canada, n.d.). Pathways forward will require more knowledge, input, collaboration, and Indigenous led management in urban forestry. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 238 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 239 The weaving of TEK into urban forest management, as well as fostering discourse, collaboration, and self-determination of Indigenous peoples, is essential to sustainable urban forest management (Reconciling Ways of Knowing, n.d.). Historically and today, urban forest management often excludes traditional Indigenous knowledge and management practices, but the pathway forward shows the importance, value, and need for TEK in urban forest management for the future. Resources Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. (2024). Canadians and communities – Indigenous peoples and forests. https://www.ccfm.org/canadians-and-communities/indigenous-peoples-and-forests/  Canadian Institute for Climate Choices. (2021). 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Council on Environmental Policy. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/OSTP-CEQ-IK-Guidance.pdf United Nations. (2018). United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/ UNDRIP_E_web.pdf Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 240 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 241 United States Department of Agriculture. (2024). Indigenous Voices and Stewardship in Urban Landscapes [webinar]. https://research.fs.usda.gov/products/multimedia/webinars/indigenous-voices-and-stewardship- urban-landscapes  Alexander, S.M., Provencher, J.F., Henri, D.A. et al. Bridging Indigenous and science-based knowledge in coastal and marine research, monitoring, and management in Canada. Environ Evid 8, 36 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13750-019-0181-3 Canada Lands Company. (2021). Former Kapyong Barracks Master Plan. https://treaty1.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Kapyong-Barracks-Master-Plan.pdf  Atleo, C., & Boron, J. (2022). Land Is Life: Indigenous Relationships to Territory and Navigating Settler Colonial Property Regimes in Canada. Land, 11(5), 609. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11050609  Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS). (n.d.). Winnipeg's First National Urban Park? Assiniboine Forest. https://cpawsmb.org/campaigns/assiniboine-forest/  Cheveau, M., Imbeau, L., Drapeau, P ., & Bélanger, L. (2008). Current status and future directions of traditional ecological knowledge in forest management: a review. The Forestry Chronicle, 84(2), 231-243. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc84231-2  City of Hamilton. (2019). City of Hamilton Urban Indigenous Strategy [report]. https://www.hamilton.ca/sites/default/�les/2022-05/EDI-2019urbanindigenousstrategy-Report.pdf  Decaire, R. (2012). Understanding indigenous agricultural systems. Heritage Matters. https://www.heritage-matters.ca/articles/understanding-indigenous-agricultural-systems  Dick, Chief A., Sewid-Smith, D., Recalma-Clutesi, K., Deur, D., and Turner, N.J. (2022). “From the beginning of time”: The colonial recon�guration of native habitats and Indigenous resource practices on the British Columbia Coast. FACETS, 7, 543-570. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-0092  Downsview Park. (n.d.). Our Story – Downsview Park: Past, Present and Future. https://downsviewpark.ca/our-story  Durzan D. J. (2009). Arginine, scurvy and Cartier's "tree of life". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 5, 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-5 Fisher, J., Shackelford, N., Hocking, M., Trant, A., and Starzomski, B. (2019). Indigenous peoples' habitation history drives present-day forest biodiversity in British Columbia's coastal temperate rainforest. People and Nature, 1(1), 103-114. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.16  Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 241 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 242 Goan, H., Martin, A., Valiquette, J. & Klein, R. (2025). Indigenous Engagement in Urban Forestry. In: City Trees – Urban and Community Forestry Society magazine, Jan/Feb 2025. 14-18. https://read.dmtmag.com/i/1530859-january-febuary-2025/13  Huron, R. (2014). Historical Roots of Canadian Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Maple Practices. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Geography, Wilfrid Laurier University. https://scholars.wlu.ca/ges_mrp/3/ Kwantlen Polytechnic University (KPU). (2018). Indigenous forest grows at KPU Langley. KPU News. https://www.kpu.ca/news/2018/10/01/indigenous-forest-grows-kpu-langley  Landry, F. (2022). Greening Toronto to Increase Resilience and Equity: Study on Citizens' Preferences Regarding the Urban Forest. (31 pp). David Suzuki Foundation. https://davidsuzuki.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Greening-Toronto-to-Increase-Resilience-and- Equity-Study-on-Citizens-Preferences-Regarding-the-Urban-Forest-Report-082022.pdf  MacLean's. (2023). How Indigenous participation in forest management is changing resource development in Canada. https://macleans.ca/sponsored/indigenous-participation-in-forestry-is-essential/  Marsh, J. & Parrott, Z. (2021). Birchbark Canoe. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/birchbark-canoe McGrath, D., Plummer, R., & Bowen, A. (2021). Cultivating our urban forest future: a value-chain perspective. FACETS, 6, 2084-2109. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-0076  McGregor, D. (2002). Indigenous knowledge in sustainable forest management: Community-based approaches achieve greater success. The Forestry Chronicle, 78(6), 833-836. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc78833-6  Moody, H. (2015). Indigenous Knowledge and Maple Syrup: A Case Study of the Effects of Colonization in Ontario. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Social Justice and Community Engagement, Wilfred Laurier University. https://scholars.wlu.ca/sjce_mrp/1/ Moola, F., Jolly, H., Borah, J. and Roth, R. (2024). The potential for Indigenous-led conservation in urbanized landscapes in Canada. Frontiers in Human Dynamics, 6, 1340379. https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2024.1340379  Mullenbach, L. E., Breyer, B., Cutts, B. B., Rivers, III, L., & Larson, L. R. (2022).  An antiracist, anticolonial agenda for urban greening and conservation. Conservation Letters, 15, e12889. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12889 Nitah, S. (2021). Indigenous peoples proven to sustain biodiversity and address climate change: Now it's time to recognize and support this leadership. One Earth, 4(7), 907-909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.06.015 Pine, D. (2016). “Ziisabaakodakaan: The Place Where Sugar is Made”. Thesis submitted to Faculty of Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 242 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 243 Geography and Planning, University of Toronto. https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/127bbdfc-550f-4611-97b4-4d2268b4cb68/ content Shaw, P . (2021). Grassroots groups and city council are working to grow Toronto's urban forest. Toronto Metropolitan University School of Journalism - On the Record News. https://ontherecordnews.ca/grassroots-groups-and-city-council-are-working-to-grow-torontos-urban- forest/  Sinthumule, N. I. (2023), Traditional ecological knowledge and its role in biodiversity conservation: a systematic review. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11, 1164900. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1164900  Sustainable Forestry Initiative. (2024). Objective 1: Community, People, And Indigenous Participation. In: Sustainable Forestry Initiative: SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Standard (p 10). https://forests.org/wp-content/uploads/SFIUrbanCommunityForestStandard.pdf  Sustainable Forestry Initiative, Project Learning Tree Canada. (2021). Forest Literacy Framework Theme 3: How do we sustain our forests? Project Learning Tree Canada. https://pltcanada.org/wp-system/uploads/2021/08/SFI-PL TC_ForestLiteracy_Theme3.pdf Therrien, L. (2022). HELP - Long Branch Red Squirrel Habitat.Change.org. https://www.change.org/p/help-long-branch-trees-at-risk  Turner, N. (2019). Indigenous Peoples' Medicine in Canada. The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/native-medicines  Vallis, C. (2023). Waterloo's urban forest receives national healing forest designation. University of Waterloo – Waterloo News. https://uwaterloo.ca/news/environment/waterloos-urban-forest-receives-national-healing-forest  Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 243 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 244 Education and Professional Development To build more sustainable urban communities, there is a growing need to integrate urban ecology into our cities across Canada by incorporating living ecosystems into urban planning and development projects. This goes beyond protecting parks and planting trees; it means reconnecting people with nature, developing a relationship between city residents and the natural features of their cities, and understanding the importance of urban forests for sustainability in cities. Building this connection involves more than just exposure to green spaces and requires a deeper understanding of the role of urban forestry in Canadian cities, and fostering knowledge that will help to best implement it. Consequently, educational and environmental programs are adapting to these demands, fostering a population and workforce that is ecologically educated and informed.  Highlights Urban ecology is essential Sustainable cities require integrating nature and fostering public connection with urban forests. Education is evolving Programs across Canada are training ecologically informed citizens and professionals. Higher education leads Universities now offer specialized degrees and training in urban forestry. Professional development matters A wide range of certi�cations, workshops, and partnerships support urban forestry careers. Broad outreach is growing Many organizations deliver environmental education nationwide, linking urban populations with nature. Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 244 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 245 Urban forestry practices and priorities are ever-changing, as there is a growing need to utilize urban ecological education in building more sustainable and treed urban communities, as well as raising an urban population that is ecologically educated and informed. Thus, fostering adaptive and diverse educational programs is integral to keeping young Canadians, working practitioners, and the public educated and properly informed. Also, disseminating knowledge and information on new and developing urban forestry practices and priorities is a vital part of keeping Canadian citizens and professionals educated and ready for professional development in the �eld of urban forestry. Higher Education Urban forestry in Canada emerged from scholars and graduates from the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto (UofT), now part of the John H. Daniels Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Design [see chapter: History of Urban Forests in Canada]. In addition, since 1997, many urban forestry professionals have graduated from the UofT's Master of Forest Conservation (MFC) program, the �rst graduate- level program to have urban forestry courses, internships, and capstone papers in urban forestry.  MFC graduates specializing in urban forestry have been urban forestry leaders in Canada’s municipalities, NGOs, federal and provincial governments, consulting groups, and abroad. In the past ten years, more educational opportunities across Canada have been created within existing or new academic programs, offering urban forestry programs, courses, topics, and Canada’s �rst Bachelor of Urban Forestry program (2015) and the more recent Master of Urban Forest Leadership at the University of British Columbia.  The Urban Forestry Training Program (Ufor) is designed to train new urban forest managers. The Ufor network consists of members from universities across Canada, as well as collaborators from around the globe. It includes graduate students (both MSc and PhD), postdoctoral researchers from various parts of Canada, and many partner organizations. Today, there are eight faculties with accredited forestry-speci�c programs in Canada, although some other departments and schools, such as Environmental Studies/ Sciences, Geography, and Landscape Architecture, also provide courses related to urban forestry. All of these post-secondary institutions across Canada are also advancing the pace of public education about urban forestry through e-lectures, Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 245 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 246 seminars, conferences, and in-person workshops.  Professional Development In practice, urban forestry involves the collaboration of diverse and cross-sector professionals, including foresters, arborists, landscape architects, biologists, ecologists, utilities workers, urban planners, engineers, politicians, economists, policy analysts, geographers, information analysts, project managers, and others. Some aspects of urban forestry may require working with licensed practitioners who must meet certain requirements set by professional regulatory bodies; as a result, the educational backgrounds of urban forestry professionals can vary widely across different sectors.  International programs such as the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) offer multiple levels of arboriculture certi�cations, which are valid internationally. In Canada, a provincial certi�cation as a Registered Forest Professional (RFP) is required for arboriculture work in most provinces. Urban foresters are often registered as RFPs and can be employed by municipalities, regionally, and by the province. While accredited programs offer professional urban forestry education, countless organizations and community movements also offer educational opportunities for both the public and practicing professionals. These organizations range from community-led events and workshops to talks and meetings that are occasionally run by municipalities or independent organizations. Educational and professional development opportunities, such as Project Learning Tree and the Canadian Institute of Forestry Job Board, also exist through online platforms to serve and mobilize Canadian Urban Forest Network engagement goals such as connecting Canadians with forestry jobs, promoting regular dialogue, and providing entry points for Canadians hoping to enter or progress in the forestry sector (Tree Canada, 2024; SFI, 2024; CIF, 2024) Many regions across Canada have in-person meetings to provide interdisciplinary experiences. Hands-on workshops and educational events are common ways to foster professional development and community education. Additionally, urban forestry education is kept relevant and adaptive through the publication of timely urban forestry topics and special series on prevalent and signi�cant topics in urban Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 246 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 247 forestry, such as the engagement of Indigenous peoples in urban forestry, or deconstructing myths and preconceptions about trees.  Additionally, programs such as the Canadian Urban Forest Network and Conference at Tree Canada offer resources and national networking, learning, and professional development opportunities for all Canadians (Tree Canada, 2024). Federally funded and non-government organizations collaborate through projects such as the Government of Canada’s collaboration with the Federation of Canadian Municipalities’ Green Municipal Fund to plant two billion trees across Canada by 2031 (FCM, 2024). This program provides educational opportunities, �nancial support, and technical resources to Canadians and organizations wishing to engage in urban greening and tree planting efforts, giving Canadians the information and support they need to properly grow, manage, and protect their tree canopies. Urban Forestry-Related Public Education As the urban population grows and more land is urbanized in Canada, urban forests and related environmental education are critical in fostering connections among individuals, cities, and the environment. In support of this, many educational and environmental programs, particularly those concerning individuals in urban settings and their relationship with the natural environment, have been established in Canada. Thus, besides professional schools and bodies, diverse organizations are engaged in urban forestry and relevant environmental education programs. They range from government entities to non-pro�t organizations and NGOs.  A recent study conducted to understand a broad spectrum of urban forestry and urban ecology-related educational programs in Canada revealed some interesting results (Puric-Mladenovic & Bardekjian, 2024). This study focused primarily on organizations with national, provincial, and regional scopes and included a few local programs for larger urban centers. For Vancouver, Calgary, and Montreal, data mining involved examining local and municipal educational programs related to urban forestry. The study surveyed 188 organizations across Canada, which collectively offered 482 diverse environmental education programs that are either directly or indirectly related to urban forestry or urban ecology. These organizations come from various backgrounds, with primary activities ranging from biodiversity and Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 247 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 248 conservation, climate change, and ecotourism to education, forestry, landscape/ horticulture, public outreach, and urban forestry. As expected, the results of the study reveal that organizations primarily focused on education (47%) tend to deliver the majority of educational programs. However, organizations with a primary focus on biodiversity and conservation take second place, providing 29% of educational programs, highlighting the growing importance of education related to urban environments and ecology. Resources University of Alberta: Faculty of Agricultural, Life & Environmental Sciences Program: Bachelor of Science in Forestry University of British Columbia: Faculty of Forestry Programs: Bachelor of Urban Forestry; Master of Urban Forestry Leadership University of Northern British Columbia: Forest Ecology and Management Program: Bachelor of Science in Forest Ecology and Management University of New Brunswick: Faculty of Forestry & Environmental Management Bachelor of Science in Forestry; Bachelor of Science in Environmental Management Université de Moncton à Edmundston: École de foresterie Programs: Bachelor of Forest Management; Master of Science in Forestry Lakehead University: Faculty of Natural Resources Management Program: Honours Bachelor of Science in Forestry University of Toronto: Graduate School of Forestry, Institute of Forestry and Conservation Program: Master of Forest Conservation Université Laval: Faculté de foresterie, de géographie et de géomatique Program: Bachelor of Forest Management and Environmental Studies The Urban Forestry Training Program (Ufor). The network of seven Canadian universities. Fleming College, Ontario: School of Environmental & Natural Resource Science Program: Arboriculture (Co-op) Post-secondary Forestry and Natural Resources Education Canada Arboriculture Degrees and Certificates Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 248 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 249 Humber College, Ontario: School of Applied Technology Program: Urban Arboriculture - Tree Care Olds College of Agriculture & Technology, Alberta Program: Arboriculture Technician Certi�cate Alberta Learning Information Service. (n.d.). Forester: Certi�cations in Alberta. https://alis.alberta.ca/occinfo/certi�cations-in-alberta/forester/   Forest Professionals British Columbia. (n.d.). Become a forest professional – Registered Professional Foresters. https://www.fpbc.ca/become-a-forest-professional/registered-professional-foresters/ Forestry is not a regulated profession in this province Association of Registered Professional Foresters of New Brunswick. (2020). ARPFNB Admission Process. https://www.arpfnb.ca/admission-process.php   Registered Professional Foresters Association of Nova Scotia. (2017). About Us – RPFANS. https://rpfans.ca/aboutus.php Ontario Professional Foresters Association. (n.d.). Practising Forestry – How to become a professional forester. https://opfa.ca/practising-forestry/becoming-a-professional-forester/ Professional Forester Designations by Province Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 249 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 250 Forestry is not a regulated profession in this province Government of Quebec. (2025). Forestry Professionals – Training and Requirements. https://www.quebec.ca/en/employment/learn-trade-occupation/exploring-trades-occupations/21111- forestry-professionals Association of Saskatchewan Forestry Professionals. (2024). ASFP – Becoming a member. https://www.asfp.ca/registration/becoming-a-member International Society of Arboriculture (ISA). (n.d.). ISA – Welcome. https://www.isa-arbor.com/  ISA Ontario. (2024). Welcome to the Ontario Chapter of the International Society of Arboriculture.  https://www.isaontario.com/ ISA Prairie. (2025). Welcome to the Prairie Chapter of the International Society of Arboriculture. https://isaprairie.com/  SIAQ. (n.d.). SIAQ – Société Internationale d’Arboriculture - Québec. https://siaq.org/fr/  Canadian Institute of Forestry (CIF). (2024). CIF Job Board. https://www.cif-ifc.org/job-board/ Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM). (2024). Government of Canada and FCM’s Green Municipal Fund Collaborate on 2 Billion Trees Program. Retrieved from FCM News https://fcm.ca/en/news-media/news-release/gmf/government-canada-and-fcms-green-municipal- fund-collaborate-2-billion-trees-program Forest Professional Regulators of Canada. (2025). Programs and Services. https://www.fprc-orpfc.ca/programs   International Society of Arboriculture (ISA). (2018). ISA Certi�cation and Credentials. https://wwv.isa-arbor.com/certi�cation/index Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). (2024). Project Learning Tree (PL T) Canada. https://forests.org/plt-canada/ Quebec Saskatchewan International Association of Arboriculture Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 250 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 251 Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). (n.d.). SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Standard – How to certify. https://forests.org/how-to-certify/ Tree Canada. (2024). Canadian Urban Forest Conference 2024. https://treecanada.ca/research-engagement/canadian-urban-forest-conference/about-the-conference/ Canadian Forests. (n.d.). Canadian Universities and Colleges offering forestry and forest management programs. https://www.canadian-forests.com/universities-colleges.html  Canadian Institute of Forestry. (2022). Forest Education. https://www.cif-ifc.org/get-engaged/forest-education/ Conway, T.M., Ordóñez, C., Roman, L. A. et al. (2021). Resident Knowledge of and Engagement with Green Infrastructure in Toronto and Philadelphia. Environmental Management 68, 566–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01515-5  Puric-Mladenovic, D. and Bardekjian, A. (2024). National Urban Environmental Education Scan (NUEES) (in preparation for publishing).  Further Reading Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 251 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 252 Additional Resources Expand your knowledge with the curated resources and further reading below. Resources Cardou, F., Aubin, I., Bergeron, A., & Shipley, B. (2020). Functional markers to predict forest ecosystem properties along a rural-to-urban gradient. Journal of Vegetation Science, 31(3), 416-428. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12855  Cities4Forests. (2020). Urban Forests for Healthier Cities: Policy, Planning, Regulations, And Institutional Arrangements – Learning Guide. https://cities4forests.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/C4F-Urban-Forests-for-Healthier-Cities.pdf  EcoHealth Ontario. (2025). Policy Toolkit for Developing and Implementing Ecohealth Policies and Practices. http://ecohealth-ontario.ca/policy-toolkit/   Engel-Yan, J. B., Kennedy, C. A., & Pressnail, K. D. (2005). Natural infrastructure and neighbourhood sustainability. Paper presented at the Proceedings, Annual Conference - Canadian Society for Civil Engineering. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2- s2.0-33748971338&partnerID=40&md5=34c8a66d2028283f3733d716ee074db5  Forest Gene Conservation Association. (n.d.). Homepage – FCGA. https://fgca.net/  Green Infrastructure Ontario Coalition (GIOC). (2016). Toolkit Part I: Communicating the Bene�ts of the Urban Forest in a Municipal Context. https://greeninfrastructureontario.org/app/uploads/2016/06/UF-Toolkit-Part-I-Communicating- Bene�ts-Bulletin-Final.pdf  Hotte, N., Nesbitt, L., Barron, S., Cowan, J., Cheng, Z. and Sheppard, S. (2016). The social and economic values of Canada's urban forests: A national synthesis. Canadian Forest Service. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.13909.12001  Housing, Infrastructure and Communities Canada. (2022). Canada and Prince Edward Island invest in new water infrastructure for Charlottetown. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/housing-infrastructure-communities/news/2022/03/canada-and-prince- edward-island-invest-in-new-water-infrastructure-for-charlottetown.html  Larouche, J., Rioux, D., Bardekjian, A. C., & Gélinas, N. (2021). Urban forestry research needs identi�ed by Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 252 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 253 Canadian municipalities. Forestry Chronicle, 97(2), 158-167. doi:10.5558/tfc2021-017   Mendes, P ., Bourgeois, B., Pellerin, S. et al. (2024). Linkages between plant functional diversity and soil- based ecosystem services in urban and peri-urban vacant lots. Urban Ecosystems, 27, 1011–1026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-023-01470-5  Ontario Network on Ecosystem Services. Access Information – Guidance. https://onecosystemservices.ca/information/guidance/  Owen, D., Fitch, A., Fletcher, D., Knopp, J., Levin, G., Farley, K., . . . Jones, L. (2024). Opportunities and constraints of implementing the 3–30–300 rule for urban greening. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 98, 128393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2024.128393  Toronto Public Health. (2015). Green City: Why nature matters to health – An Evidence Review. Toronto, Ontario. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2015/hl/bgrd/background�le-83421.pdf  Quinton, J. M. and Duinker, P . N. (2019). Beyond burial: researching and managing cemeteries as urban green spaces, with examples from Canada. Environmental Reviews, 27(2), 252-262. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2018-0060  Alivio, M. B., Šraj, M. and Bezak, N. (2023). Investigating the reduction of rainfall intensity beneath an urban deciduous tree canopy. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 342, 109727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2023.109727  Borelli, S., Conigliaro, M., Di Cagno, F. (2023). Urban forests: a global perspective. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc8216en Kane, R. (2004). The Green Fuse: Using plants to provide ecosystem services – a literature review. SPROUT Sustainable Plant Research and Outreach. Local file reference removed from public page. Leff, M. (2016). The Sustainable Urban Forest: A Step-by-Step Approach. USDA Forest Service, Washington. https://www.itreetools.org/documents/175/Sustainable_Urban_Forest_Guide_14Nov2016.pdf  The Nature Conservancy. (2022). The Biodiversity Action Guide. https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-insights/perspectives/biodiversity-action-guide/  Sustainable Forestry Initiative. (2024). SFI Urban and Community Forest Sustainability Standard. https://forests.org/s�-urban-forestry-standard/  University of Washington. (2018). Green Cities: Good Health – More Resources. https://depts.washington.edu/hhwb/Top_Resources.html  Wentworth, J. (2017). Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services – Research Brie�ng. Non-Canadian Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 253 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM Page 254 Parliamentary O�ce of Science and Technology, UK. https://doi.org/10.58248/PB26 Growing Green Cities: A Practical Guide to Urban Forestry in Canada... https://treecanada.ca/urban-forestry-guide/ 254 of 254 3/12/2026, 3:51 PM